Formation

and
Composition of rock

Dr. Sajid Ali

Scientist-B
BSIP, Lucknow
Compositional layers Mechanical layers
Behaviour of earth internal layers in response to seismic waves.

• P-wave propagates in
both solid and liquid ,
but velocity of p-wave
decreases when it passes
through liquid or nearly
liquid state matter.

• But, S-waves only travel

in solid medium , it
terminates in liquid state
matter.
Earth’s Crust

• The outermost layer of the geosphere, Earth’s

crust, is extremely thin; it is analogous to the very thin skin on an apple.
• The crust is separated from the underlying mantle by the Mohorovicic´ (Moho)
discontinuity.
• Two major types of crust occur.

A comparison of oceanic and continental crust characteristics.

Earth’s mantle

• The mantle is thick ∼2900km relative to the radius of Earth ∼6370km

• Constitutes ∼83% of Earth’s total volume.
• The mantle is distinguished from the crust by being very rich in MgO (30–40%) and,
to a lesser extent in FeO.
• It contains an average of approximately 40–45% SiO2 which means it has an
ultrabasic composition
• The uppermost part of the mantle and the crust together constitute the relatively rigid
lithosphere,
• A discrete low velocity zone (LVZ) occurs within the upper mantle at depths of ∼100
–
250km below the surface.
• The anomalously low P -wave velocity of the LVZ has been explained by small
amounts of partial melting
• The asthenosphere is more plastic and flows slowly, rather than rupturing, when
subjected to stress.
Transition zone
• Seismic discontinuities marked
by increases in seismic velocity
occur within the upper mantle at
depths of ∼410 and ∼660km.
• The interval between the depths
of 410 and 660km is called the
transition zone between the
upper and lower mantle.
• The sudden jumps in seismic
velocity record sudden increases
in rigidity and incompressibility.
Why known as Transition zone ?
• At approximately 410km depth ( ∼14GPa), olivine (Mg2SiO4) is transformed to more
rigid, incompressible beta spinel (β- spinel), also known as wadleysite (Mg2SiO4).

olivine (Mg2SiO4) wadleysite (Mg2SiO4) or (β- spinel).

• Within the transition zone, wadleysite is transformed into the higher pressure mineral
ringwoodite.
• At ∼660km depth (∼24GPa), ringwoodite and garnet are converted to very rigid,
incompressible perovskite [(Mg,Fe,Al)SiO3] and oxide phases such as
periclase (MgO).

ringwoodite and perovskite [(Mg,Fe,Al)SiO3] and

garnet oxide phases periclase (MgO).
Lower mantle ( mesosphere)

• Major minerals:- Perovskite, periclase, magnesiowustite, stishovite ,

ilmenite and ferrite.
• Extends from depths of 660km to the mantle– core boundary at ∼2900km
depth.
• Complex zone near the core– mantle boundary called the D″ layer. The D″
discontinuity ranges from ∼130 to 340km above the core –mantle boundary.
• Williams and Garnero (1996) proposed an ultra low velocity zone(ULVZ)
in the lowermost mantle on seismic evidence.
Earth’s core
•Consists primarily of iron (∼85%), with smaller, but significant amounts of nickel (∼5%) and
lighter elements (∼8 –10%).
•A dramatic decrease in P-wave velocity and the termination of S-wave propagation occurs at the
2900km discontinuity.
•S -waves are not transmitted by non-rigid substances such as fluids, the outer core is inferred to be
a liquid.
•Highly compressed liquid with a density of ∼10 – 12g/cm3.
•Responsible for the production of most of Earth’s magnetic field.
•The outer/inner core boundary, the Lehman discontinuity, at 5150km.
•Rapid increase in P-wave velocity and the occurrence of low velocity S-waves. The solid inner core
has a density of ∼13g/cm3.
• Density and magnetic studies suggest that Earth’s inner core also consists largely of iron, with
nickel and less oxygen, sulphur.
Magma and its formation
•Magma is molten rock material generated by partial melting of Earth’s mantle and
crust.
•Magma contains liquids, crystals, gases and rock fragments in varying proportions
depending upon temperature, pressure and chemistry conditions.
•The great variety of magmas and lavas that solidify to produce igneous rocks in
Earth’s crust are initially formed by a process called
anatexis, refers to the partial melting of a source rock.

Anatexis produces:
(1) A liquid melt fraction enriched in lower temperature constituents, and
(2) a residual rock component enriched in higher temperature, refractory
elements.
 Cont.
Rock melting within Earth’s interior is
modelled as two idealized end member
processes: equilibrium melting and
fractional melting.
1. Equilibrium melting :- chemicals are
neither added nor removed from the
plutonic environment.
2. Fractional (disequilibrium) melting:-
solids and melt separate into isolated
fractions that do not continue to react
together during the melting process.
Composition of magma
• The type of magma produced by partial melting and subsequent
processes depends upon factors such as:
1. The composition, temperature and depth of the source rock
2. The percent partial melting of the source rock.
3. The source rock’s previous melting history.
4. Diversification processes that change the composition of the magma
after it leaves the source region.
Composition of magma
Harker diagrams

Incompatible light rare Earth

elements (LREE) are progressively enriched
with ever smaller degrees of partial melting.
As greater degrees of partial melting occur,
the rare Earth element pattern more closely
approximates that of the parental material
such as chondrites.
Diversification processes
• Differentiation:- fractional
crystallization processes
whereby early formed crystals
are segregated from the
remaining melt.
Bowen suggested that
fractionation may be
accomplished “through the
relative movement of crystals and
liquid”.

Closed system diversification

processes
Open-system diversification

1. Assimilation:-whereby the surrounding wall rock (country rock) is

intruded by and reacts chemically with the magma.

2. Magma mixing:-thorough mixing so that the individual magma

components are no longer recognizable.

3. Magma mingling:-two or more dissimilar magmas coexist, displaying

contact relations but retaining their distinctive individual magma
characteristics.
 Igneous rock formation

• With cooling, magma becomes progressively more enriched in solid

material at the expense of liquid melt.
• Magma that solidifies within Earth produces intrusive or plutonic
rocks. Intrusive rocks develop from magma that cools slowly within
Earth producing large crystals visible to the eye.
• Volcanic or extrusive igneous rocks form by solidification of lava and
volcanic debris on Earth’s surface, producing rocks with small crystals
and/or non- crystalline particles of various sizes.
 General classification of igneous rock
Generalized description of rock color
Rock description based on weight percent based on mineral composition.
silica.
 IUGS classification of
igneous rock

QAPF diagram for plutonic igneous

rocks with >10% felsic minerals and
<90% mafic minerals.
 IUGS classification of igneous rock

Modal classification of
ultramafic plutonic rocks
based on proportions of
olivine (Ol),
orthopyroxene (Opx),
clinopyroxene (Cpx),
pyroxene (Px) and
hornblende (Hbl).
Sedimentary rocks
• Formation of sedimentary rock:-
Sedimentary rocks are formed from pre-
existing rocks or pieces of once-living
organisms.
• They form from deposits that
accumulate on the Earth's surface.
• Sedimentary rocks often have
distinctive layering or bedding.
• Many of the picturesque views of the
desert southwest show mesas and arches
made of layered sedimentary rock.
 Classification of
sedimentary rock
Nomenclature used for mixtures of
gravel, sand and mud in sediments
and sedimentary rock.
The Pettijohn classification of
sandstones, often referred to as a
‘Toblerone plot’ (Pettijohn 1975).
Metamorphic rocks
• Metamorphic rocks started out as some other type of rock, but have been
substantially changed from their original igneous, sedimentary, or earlier
metamorphic form. Metamorphic rocks form when rocks are subjected to high
heat, high pressure, hot mineral-rich fluids or, more commonly, some combination
of these factors. Conditions like these are found deep within the Earth or where
tectonic plates meet.
• Process of Metamorphism:
The process of metamorphism does not melt the rocks, but instead transforms
them into denser, more compact rocks. New minerals are created either by
rearrangement of mineral components or by reactions with fluids that enter the
rocks. Pressure or temperature can even change previously metamorphosed rocks
into new types. Metamorphic rocks are often squished, smeared out, and folded.
Despite these uncomfortable conditions, metamorphic rocks do not get hot enough
to melt, or they would become igneous rocks!
Metamorphic rocks
and their protoliths