Lecture # 14 Chapter 3

Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering

Fluid Mechanics-I (ME233)

By Pre-Requisite: Thermo-I
Engr. Faraz Ahmad
MSc. Mechanical Engineering (GIKI, 2019)
BSc. Mechanical Engineering (UET Peshawar, 2017)
Elementary Fluid Dynamics –
The Bernoulli Equation
 Newton’s Second Law: F = ma

• Consider inviscid, steady, two-dimensional flow in x-

z plane
• Define streamlines
• Select coordinate systems based on streamlines
• Define acceleration
• Define forces
• Apply Newton’s second law of motion along and
across streamline
 Coordinate System

• Prior to apply Newton’s second law of motion to fluid particle:

• Consider motion of an inviscid fluid
• Assume that fluid motion is governed by pressure and gravity forces
• Select an appropriate coordinate system. Consider two dimensional motion
(x-z plane)
 Coordinate System
• Motion of a fluid particle is described by its velocity vector
• As the particle moves, it follows a particular path, the shape of
which is governed by velocity vector
• If flow is steady, each successive particle that passes through
given point (1) will follow the same path. For such cases the
path is a fixed line in the x-z plane. The entire x-z plane is filled
with such paths.
 Coordinate System

• For steady flow each particle slides along its path and
its velocity vector is everywhere tangent to the path
 Streamlines

• For steady flow each particle slides along its path and its
velocity vector is everywhere tangent to the path
• The lines that are tangent to the velocity vectors throughout the
flow field are called streamlines.
 Streamlines

• For steady flow each particle slides along its path and its
velocity vector is everywhere tangent to the path
• The lines that are tangent to the velocity vectors throughout the
flow field are called streamlines.
• We will use coordinates based on streamlines
 Particle Motion

• Particle motion is described in terms of its distance, s = s(t),

along streamline, and local radius of curvature R = R(s)
• Distance s is related to particle’s speed V = ds/dt, and radius of
curvature R is related to the shape of streamline
 Particle Acceleration
• Acceleration: a  d V dt

• Components of acceleration in s and n directions:

 Particle Acceleration
• Acceleration: a  d V dt

• Components of acceleration in s and n directions:

V V2
as  V , an 
s 
Particle Acceleration
 Forces

• To determine forces consider free-body diagram of

small fluid particle
 F = ma along a Streamline

Equation of motion along streamline

Mass

Acceleration

Free-body diagram
of a fluid particle
 F = ma along a Streamline

Equation of motion along streamline

Free-body diagram
of a fluid particle
 F = ma along a Streamline
p V
Equation of motion along streamline (details  sin    V   as
) s s
Change in fluid particle speed is accomplished
by combination of pressure gradient and particle
weight along streamline

Free-body diagram
of a fluid particle
 Bernoulli Equation
p V
Consider equation  sin    V (a)
s s

dz
Along streamline sin  
ds

V
V 1 d V

2
 
Also
s 2 ds

Finally, along streamline value of n is constant (dn = 0) so that

p p p
dp  ds  dn  ds
s n s

Hence, along streamline ∂p/ ∂ s = dp/ds . Then equation (a) becomes

1
dp 
2
 
 d V 2   dz  0 (along streamline)

Integration at constant density gives Bernoulli equation back

 F = ma along a Streamline
p V
Equation of motion along streamline  sin    V   as
s s

can be rearranged (details)

1
dp 
2
 
 d V 2   dz  0 (along streamline)

and integrated

dp 1 2
   2 V  gz  C (along a streamline)

Free-body diagram
of a fluid particle
 Bernoulli Equation
For incompressible fluid equation of motion along streamline reduces to Bernoulli
equation

1
p V 2   z  constant along streamline
2

Restricted to:
- inviscid flow
- steady flow
- incompressible flow
- along streamline
 F = ma Normal to a Streamline

Equation of motion along the normal direction (details

)

Free-body diagram
of a fluid particle
 F = ma Normal to a Streamline
 mV 2  V V 2
Newton second law in normal direction   Fn    
 F = ma Normal to a Streamline

Gravity force  Wn   W cos    V cos 

 F = ma Normal to a Streamline
p
Pressure force  Fpn   p   pn  s y   p   pn  s y   V
n
 F = ma Normal to a Streamline
 p 
Net force  Fn   Wn   Fpn    cos     V
 n 

back
 F = ma Normal to a Streamline

Equation of motion along the normal direction dz p V 2

  
dn n 

Change in the direction of flow of a fluid

particle is accomplished by combination of
pressure gradient and particle weight normal to
streamline

Free-body diagram
of a fluid particle
 F = ma Normal to a Streamline

For steady, inviscid, incompressible flow

V2
p   dn   z  constant across streamline


Restricted to:
- inviscid flow
- steady flow
- incompressible flow
- across streamline
 Physical Interpretation
For steady flow of an inviscid and incompressible fluid:

1
p V 2   z  constant along streamline
2

Work done on a particle by all forces acting on the particle is equal to the change of the
kinetic energy of the particle
Each term of Bernoulli equation can be interpreted as head (elevation, pressure, velocity)

p V2
  z  constant along streamline
 2g

Bernoulli equation state that the sum of the pressure head, velocity head, and
elevation head is constant along a streamline
 Physical Interpretation
For Inviscid, Steady & Incompressible
Flow
Constant along a
streamline

For Inviscid, Steady & Incompressible

Flow
Constant normal to
streamline
 Physical Interpretation
For steady flow of an inviscid and incompressible fluid:

1
p V 2   z  constant along streamline
2

Work done on a particle by all forces acting on the particle is equal to the change of the
kinetic energy of the particle
Each term of Bernoulli equation can be interpreted as head (elevation, pressure, velocity)

p V2
  z  constant along streamline
 2g

Bernoulli equation state that the sum of the pressure head, velocity head, and
elevation head is constant along a streamline
 Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure

Useful concept associated with the Bernoulli equation deals with the stagnation and
dynamic pressures.
As fluid is brought to rest its kinetic energy is converted to a pressure rise
 Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure

Each term in Bernoulli equation can be interpreted as a form of pressure; static, p,

hydrostatic,  z, and dynamic, V 2/2 ,
1
p V 2   z  constant along streamline
2

Point (2) is a stagnation point

1
p2  p1  V12
2

Pressure at the stagnation point

is greater than static pressure
by dynamic pressure
 Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure

• There is a stagnation point on any stationary body that is placed onto a flowing
fluid

• Some of the fluid flows “over” and some “under” the object. Dividing line is
termed the stagnation streamline and terminates at the stagnation point on the
body

• Location of the stagnation point is function of body shape.

 Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure

• If elevation effect are neglected, stagnation pressure, p + V2/2, is the largest

pressure obtainable along a given streamline. It represents the conversion of all of
the kinetic energy into a pressure rise.

• Sum of the static pressure, hydrostatic pressure, and dynamic pressure is termed the
total pressure, pT

• Bernoulli equation is a statement that total pressure remains constant along a

streamline.

1
p V 2   z  pT  constant along streamline
2
 Fluid Velocity Measurement

Pitot-static tubes measure fluid velocity by converting velocity into pressure

Pitot-static tube
Typical Pitot-Static Tube Designs
Measurement of Static Pressure

Incorrect and correct design of static pressure taps

Airplane Pitot-static probe
(Schematic)
Examples of Use of Bernoulli Equation
 Free Jets

Exit pressure for an incompressible fluid jet is equal to the surrounding pressure

Velocity:
at (2)
at (5)

Vertical flow from a tank

 Free Jets

Exit pressure for an incompressible fluid jet is equal to the surrounding pressure

Velocity:
at (2) V  2 gh

at (5) V  2 g  h  H 

Vertical flow from a tank

 Free Jets

For horizontal nozzle velocity is not uniform

If d « h centerline velocity can be used as an “average velocity”

Horizontal flow from a tank

 Free Jets
If exit is not smooth, diameter of the jet will be less than diameter of the hole.
Vena contracta effect is a result of the inability of the fluid to turn the sharp 90º corner
Since streamlines in the exit plane are curved, the pressure across them is not constant.
The highest pressure occurs along the centerline at (2), and lowest pressure, p1 = p3 = 0

Vena contracta effect for a sharp-edged orifice

 Free Jets

Assumption of uniform velocity with straight streamlines and constant pressure is not
valid at the exit plane
It is valid in the plane of vena contracta, section a-a, provided dj « h

Vena contracta effect for a sharp-edged orifice

 Free Jets

Vena contracta effect is a function of the geometry of the outlet.

Contraction coefficient:

Cc  Aj Ah

Typical flow patterns and

contraction coefficients for
various round exit configurations
Examples of Use of Bernoulli Equation
 Free Jets

Exit pressure for an incompressible fluid jet is equal to the surrounding pressure

Velocity:
at (2)
at (5)

Vertical flow from a tank

 Free Jets

Exit pressure for an incompressible fluid jet is equal to the surrounding pressure

Velocity:
at (2) V  2 gh

at (5) V  2 g  h  H 

Vertical flow from a tank

 Free Jets

For horizontal nozzle velocity is not uniform

If d « h centerline velocity can be used as an “average velocity”

Horizontal flow from a tank

 Free Jets
If exit is not smooth, diameter of the jet will be less than diameter of the hole.
Vena contracta effect is a result of the inability of the fluid to turn the sharp 90º corner
Since streamlines in the exit plane are curved, the pressure across them is not constant.
The highest pressure occurs along the centerline at (2), and lowest pressure, p1 = p3 = 0

Vena contracta effect for a sharp-edged orifice

 Free Jets

Assumption of uniform velocity with straight streamlines and constant pressure is not
valid at the exit plane
It is valid in the plane of vena contracta, section a-a, provided dj « h

Vena contracta effect for a sharp-edged orifice

 Free Jets

Vena contracta effect is a function of the geometry of the outlet.

Contraction coefficient:

Cc  Aj Ah

Typical flow patterns and

contraction coefficients for
various round exit configurations
 Confined Flows
In nozzles and pipes of variable diameter velocity changes from one section
to another
For such cases continuity equation must be used along with Bernoulli
equation
Continuity equation states that mass cannot be created or destroyed
For incompressible fluid (details) AV
1 1  A2V2 or Q1  Q2
 Continuity Equation
Consider a fluid flowing through a fixed volume. If the flow is steady, rate
at which fluid flows into the volume must equal the rate at which it flows
out of the volume (mass is conserved)
  Q
Mass flow rate is given by m
Volume flow rate Q  VA
Conservation of mass requires 1 AV
1 1   2 A2V2

If density remains constant AV

1 1  A2V2

back
Example 3.7 A stream of water of diameter d = 0.1 m
flows steadily from a tank of diameter D = 1.0 m.
Determine the flowrate, Q , needed from the inflow pipe
if the water depth remains constant, h = 2.0 m
 Cavitation
Cavitation occurs when the
pressure is reduced to the vapor
pressure

Example: water, which boils at

212 oF at standard atmospheric
pressure, 14.7 psia, boils at 80
o
F if the pressure is 0.507 psia.

If the hose is “kinked,” a

restriction in the flow area will
result resulting increased
velocity at that area. “Hissing”
sound is produced as result of
cavitation. Pressure variation and cavitation in a variable area pipe
 Flowrate Measurement
Various flow meters are
governed by the Bernoulli and
continuity equations

We consider “ideal” flow

meters – those devoid of
viscous, compressibility, and
other effects.

The flowrate is a function of

the pressure difference across
the flow meter
2  p1  p2 
Q  A2
 1   A2 A1  
2
 
Typical devices for measuring flowrate
 Flowrate Measurement. Sluice Gate
The flowrate under a sluice gate depends on the water depths on either side of the gate

2 g  z1  z2 
Q  z2 b
1   z2 z1 
2

In the limit of z1»z2

Q  z2b 2 gz1
A vena contracta occurs as water
flows under a sluice gate

Sluice gate geometry

 Flowrate Measurement. Sharp-crested Weir
Flowrate over a weir is a function of the head on the weir

32
Q  C1 Hb 2 gH  C1b 2 g H

Rectangular, sharp-crested weir geometry

Example 3.8
 Example 3.8

2 p1
Answers: V3   69.0 m/s V2 =7.67 m/s

Q  0.00542 m3 / s p2  2963 N/m 2

Comments: V3 is determined strictly by the value of p1

In absence of viscous effect pressure throughout the hose is constant and equals to p2
Decrease in pressure from p1 to p3 accelerate the air and increase its kinetic energy
Pressure change (density change) is within 3%. Hence, incompressibility assumption
is reasonable
Example 3.9
Example 3.9

2
 Q  1   A2 A1 
2

Answer: h 
 A2  2 g 1  SG 

Comments:
For a given flowrate h does not depend on theta
(inclination).
Example 3.11
Example 3.11

Answer:

1.16 kPa  p1  p2  116 kPa

Example 3.9
 Energy Line and Hydraulic Grade Line
Hydraulic grade line and energy line are graphical forms of the Bernoulli
equation
Energy line represents the total head available to the fluid

Locus provided by a series

of piezometric taps is
termed the hydraulic grade
line

Representation of the
energy line and the
hydraulic grade line
 Energy Line and Hydraulic Grade Line
If the flow is steady, incompressible, and inviscid, the energy line is
horizontal and at the elevation of the liquid in the tank.
Hydraulic grade line lies a distance of one velocity head below the energy
line
At the pipe outlet the pressure head is zero (gage) so the pipe elevation and
hydraulic grade line coincide

Energy line and hydraulic

grade line for flow from a
tank
 Energy Line and Hydraulic Grade Line
The distance from pipe to hydraulic grade line indicates the pressure within the pipe
For flow below the hydraulic grade line, the pressure is positive
For flow above the hydraulic grade line, the pressure is negative
Remember: HGL measures sum of pressure head & elevation head

Use of the energy line and hydraulic grade line See Example
Example 3.12
Example 3.12
Example 3.12

Q
Answers:  4.83 m 2 /s
b
 Restriction on Use of the Bernoulli Equation

Restrictions on use for the Bernoulli equation are imposed by the assumptions used in its
derivation.
To avoid incorrect use of Bernoulli equation one must take into account:
- Compressibility effects;
- Unsteady effects;
- Rotational effects;
- Viscosity effects;
- Presence of mechanical devices (pumps, turbines)
 Compressibility Effects

Bernoulli equation can be modified for compressible flows.

For compressible, inviscid, isothermal, steady flows:

V12 RT  p1  V22
 z1  ln     z2
2g g  p2  2 g

Use of above equation is restricted by inviscid flow assumptions, since

most isothermal flows are accompanied by viscous effects.
For compressible, isentropic (no friction or heat transfer), steady flow of a
perfect gas: 2 2
 k  p1 V1  k  p2 V2
    gz1      gz 2
 k  1  1 2  k  1  2 2
 Compressibility Effects
Bernoulli equation for compressible flow can be written for pressure ratio as

 k

p2  p1  k  1  k  1
 1  Ma12   1
p1  2  
 
Where Ma = V/c is the Mach number; c is local speed of sound
A “rule of thumb” is that the
flow of a perfect gas may be
considered as incompressible
provided the Mach number is
less than about 0.3

Pressure ratio as a function of

Mach number for incompressible
and compressible (isentropic) flow
 Unsteady Effects

V12 s2 V V22
p1    z1    ds  p2    z2
2 s1 t 2
Example 3.10

at 60ºF vapor pressure is 0.256 psia

Answer: H  28.2 ft

Comments: Results are independent of diameter and length of the hose (provided viscous
effects are not important
Proper design of hose is needed to ensure that it will not collapse due to the large pressure
difference (vacuum) between the inside and outsides of the hose
Example 3.17

V12
Answers: p2    h  518 kPa
2

Comments: ?
 End of Lecture

People in the same boat help each

other to cross to the other bank….