EEE 498/598

Overview of Electrical
Engineering
Lecture 7: Magnetostatics: Ampere’s Law
Of Force; Magnetic Flux Density; Lorentz
Force; Biot-savart Law; Applications Of
Ampere’s Law In Integral Form; Vector
Magnetic Potential; Magnetic Dipole;
Magnetic Flux

1
 Lecture 7 Objectives
 To begin our study of magnetostatics
with Ampere’s law of force; magnetic
flux density; Lorentz force; Biot-Savart
law; applications of Ampere’s law in
integral form; vector magnetic potential;
magnetic dipole; and magnetic flux.

Lecture 7
2
 Overview of Electromagnetics
Fundamental laws of Maxwell’s
classical electromagnetics
equations

Special Electro- Magneto- Electro- Geometric

cases statics statics magnetic Optics
waves

Statics: 0 Transmission
t
Line
Theory
Input from Circuit
other Theory Kirchoff’s
disciplines d  
Laws

Lecture 7
3
 Magnetostatics
 Magnetostatics is the branch of electromagnetics
dealing with the effects of electric charges in
steady motion (i.e, steady current or DC).
 The fundamental law of magnetostatics is
Ampere’s law of force.
 Ampere’s law of force is analogous to Coulomb’s
law in electrostatics.

Lecture 7
4
 Magnetostatics (Cont’d)
 In magnetostatics, the magnetic field is
produced by steady currents. The
magnetostatic field does not allow for
 inductivecoupling between circuits
 coupling between electric and magnetic
fields

Lecture 7
5
 Ampere’s Law of Force
 Ampere’s law of force is the “law of action”
between current carrying circuits.
 Ampere’s law of force gives the magnetic
force between two current carrying circuits in
an otherwise empty universe.
 Ampere’s law of force involves complete
circuits since current must flow in closed
loops.

Lecture 7
6
Ampere’s Law of Force (Cont’d)

 Experimental facts: F21 F12

 Two parallel wires  
carrying current in the I1 I2
same direction attract.
 Two parallel wires
carrying current in the F21 F12
opposite directions  
repel. I1 I2

Lecture 7
7
Ampere’s Law of Force (Cont’d)

 Experimental facts:
 A short current- F12 = 0
carrying wire  I2
oriented I1
perpendicular to a
long current-carrying
wire experiences no
force.

Lecture 7
8
Ampere’s Law of Force (Cont’d)
 Experimental facts:
 The magnitude of the force is inversely
proportional to the distance squared.
 The magnitude of the force is proportional
to the product of the currents carried by the
two wires.

Lecture 7
9
 Ampere’s Law of Force (Cont’d)
 The direction of the force established by the
experimental facts can be mathematically
represented by
unit vector in direction unit vector in direction
of current I2 of current I1


aˆ F12  aˆ 2  aˆ1  aˆ R12 
unit vector in unit vector in direction
direction of force on of I2 from I1
I2 due to I1
Lecture 7
10
Ampere’s Law of Force (Cont’d)
 The force acting on a current element I2 dl2 by
a current element I1 dl1 is given by

 0 I 2 d l 2  I1d l 1  aˆ R12 
F 12  2
4 R12

Permeability of free space

0 = 4  10-7 F/m

Lecture 7
11
Ampere’s Law of Force (Cont’d)
 The total force acting on a circuit C2 having a
current I2 by a circuit C1 having current I1 is
given by
 0 I1 I 2 d l 2  d l 1  aˆ R12 
F 12 
4 C2 C1   R122

Lecture 7
12
Ampere’s Law of Force (Cont’d)
 The force on C1 due to C2 is equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction to the
force on C2 due to C1.

F 21   F 12

Lecture 7
13
 Magnetic Flux Density
 Ampere’s force law describes an “action at a
distance” analogous to Coulomb’s law.
 In Coulomb’s law, it was useful to introduce
the concept of an electric field to describe the
interaction between the charges.
 In Ampere’s law, we can define an appropriate
field that may be regarded as the means by
which currents exert force on each other.

Lecture 7
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 Magnetic Flux Density (Cont’d)
 The magnetic flux density can be introduced
by writing

F 12   I 2 d l 2 
0 I d l
1 1  aˆ R12 
C2
4 
C1
R 2
12

  I 2 d l 2  B12
C2

Lecture 7
15
 Magnetic Flux Density (Cont’d)
 where

0 I1d l 1  aˆ R12
B12 
4 
C1
R 2
12

the magnetic flux density at the location of

dl2 due to the current I1 in C1

Lecture 7
16
 Magnetic Flux Density (Cont’d)
 Suppose that an infinitesimal current element
Idl is immersed in a region of magnetic flux
density B. The current element experiences a
force dF given by

d F  Id l  B

Lecture 7
17
 Magnetic Flux Density (Cont’d)
 The total force exerted on a circuit C carrying
current I that is immersed in a magnetic flux
density B is given by

F  I  dl  B
C

Lecture 7
18
 Force on a Moving Charge
 A moving point charge placed in a magnetic
field experiences a force given by
F m  Qv  B Id l  Qv

The force experienced

by the point charge is
v B in the direction into the
Q
paper.

Lecture 7
19
 Lorentz Force
 If a point charge is moving in a region where both
electric and magnetic fields exist, then it
experiences a total force given by

F  F e  F m  qE  v  B 
 The Lorentz force equation is useful for
determining the equation of motion for electrons in
electromagnetic deflection systems such as CRTs.

Lecture 7
20
 The Biot-Savart Law
 The Biot-Savart law gives us the B-field
arising at a specified point P from a given
current distribution.
 It is a fundamental law of magnetostatics.

Lecture 7
21
 The Biot-Savart Law (Cont’d)
 The contribution to the B-field at a point P
from a differential current element Idl’ is
given by

0 I d l   R
d B(r )  3
4 R

Lecture 7
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The Biot-Savart Law (Cont’d)

P
R
Id l 
r r

Lecture 7
23
 The Biot-Savart Law (Cont’d)
 The total magnetic flux at the point P due to
the entire circuit C is given by

0 I d l   R
B(r )   3
C
4 R

Lecture 7
24
Types of Current Distributions
 Line current density (current) - occurs for
infinitesimally thin filamentary bodies (i.e.,
wires of negligible diameter).
 Surface current density (current per unit
width) - occurs when body is perfectly
conducting.
 Volume current density (current per unit
cross sectional area) - most general.

Lecture 7
25
The Biot-Savart Law (Cont’d)
 For a surface distribution of current, the B-S law
becomes
0 J s r  R
B(r )   3
ds 
S
4  R

 For a volume distribution of current, the B-S law

becomes
 0 J r  R
B(r )   3
dv 
V
4 R

Lecture 7
26
 Ampere’s Circuital Law in
Integral Form
 Ampere’s Circuital Law in integral form states
that “the circulation of the magnetic flux density
in free space is proportional to the total current
through the surface bounding the path over which
the circulation is computed.”


C
B  d l   0 I encl

Lecture 7
27
Ampere’s Circuital Law in
Integral Form (Cont’d)
dl By convention, dS is
taken to be in the
dS direction defined by the
S
right-hand rule applied
to dl.
Since volume current
density is the most
I encl   J  d s general, we can write
S Iencl in this way.

Lecture 7
28
Ampere’s Law and Gauss’s Law
 Just as Gauss’s law follows from Coulomb’s
law, so Ampere’s circuital law follows from
Ampere’s force law.
 Just as Gauss’s law can be used to derive the
electrostatic field from symmetric charge
distributions, so Ampere’s law can be used to
derive the magnetostatic field from symmetric
current distributions.

Lecture 7
29
 Applications of Ampere’s Law
 Ampere’s law in integral form is an integral
equation for the unknown magnetic flux density
resulting from a given current distribution.

known

C
B  d l   0 I encl

unknown

Lecture 7
30
 Applications of Ampere’s Law
(Cont’d)
 In general, solutions to integral equations
must be obtained using numerical
techniques.
 However, for certain symmetric current
distributions closed form solutions to
Ampere’s law can be obtained.

Lecture 7
31
 Applications of Ampere’s Law
(Cont’d)
 Closed form solution to Ampere’s law
relies on our ability to construct a suitable
family of Amperian paths.
 An Amperian path is a closed contour to
which the magnetic flux density is
tangential and over which equal to a
constant value.

Lecture 7
32
Magnetic Flux Density of an Infinite
Line Current Using Ampere’s Law
Consider an infinite line current along the z-axis carrying current in the
+z-direction:

Lecture 7
33
 Magnetic Flux Density of an Infinite Line
Current Using Ampere’s Law (Cont’d)

(1) Assume from symmetry and the right-hand

rule the form of the field

B  aˆ B  
(2) Construct a family of Amperian paths
circles of radius  where

Lecture 7
34
 Magnetic Flux Density of an Infinite Line
Current Using Ampere’s Law (Cont’d)

(3) Evaluate the total current passing through the

surface bounded by the Amperian path

I encl   J  d s
S

Lecture 7
35
Magnetic Flux Density of an Infinite Line
Current Using Ampere’s Law (Cont’d)

Amperian path


x
I

I encl  I

Lecture 7
36
 Magnetic Flux Density of an Infinite Line
Current Using Ampere’s Law (Cont’d)

(4) For each Amperian path, evaluate the integral

 B  d l  Bl
C
length
of Amperian
path.
magnitude of B
on Amperian
path.

 B  d l  B  2 
C
Lecture 7
37
 Magnetic Flux Density of an Infinite Line
Current Using Ampere’s Law (Cont’d)

(5) Solve for B on each Amperian path

0 I encl
B
l

0 I
B  aˆ
2 

Lecture 7
38
Applying Stokes’s Theorem to
Ampere’s Law
 B  dl    B d s
C S

  0 I encl   0  J  d s
S
 Because the above must hold for any
surface S, we must have
Differential form
  B  0 J
of Ampere’s Law
Lecture 7
39
 Ampere’s Law in Differential
Form
 Ampere’s law in differential form implies
that the B-field is conservative outside of
regions where current is flowing.

Lecture 7
40
 Fundamental Postulates of
Magnetostatics
 Ampere’s law in differential form

  B  0 J
 No isolated magnetic charges

B  0 B is solenoidal

Lecture 7
41
 Vector Magnetic Potential
 Vector identity: “the divergence of the curl of
any vector field is identically zero.”

    A  0
 Corollary: “If the divergence of a vector field
is identically zero, then that vector field can be
written as the curl of some vector potential
field.”
Lecture 7
42
 Vector Magnetic Potential
(Cont’d)
 Since the magnetic flux density is
solenoidal, it can be written as the curl of
a vector field called the vector magnetic
potential.

B  0  B   A

Lecture 7
43
 Vector Magnetic Potential
(Cont’d)
 The general form of the B-S law is
 0 J r  R
B(r )   3
d v 
V
4 R

 Note that
1 R
    3
R R

Lecture 7
44
 Vector Magnetic Potential
(Cont’d)
 Furthermore, note that the del operator operates
only on the unprimed coordinates so that

J r  R 1
3
  J r   
R R
1
    J r 
R
 J r  
  
 R 

Lecture 7
45
 Vector Magnetic Potential
(Cont’d)
 Hence, we have

0 J r 
Br     V  R dv 
4

Ar 

Lecture 7
46
 Vector Magnetic Potential
(Cont’d)
 For a surface distribution of current, the vector
magnetic potential is given by
0 J s r 
A(r ) 
4 S  R d s 

 For a line current, the vector magnetic potential is

given by
0 I d l 
4 L R
A(r ) 

Lecture 7
47
 Vector Magnetic Potential
(Cont’d)
 In some cases, it is easier to evaluate the
vector magnetic potential and then use
B =  A, rather than to use the B-S
law to directly find B.
 In some ways, the vector magnetic
potential A is analogous to the scalar
electric potential V.

Lecture 7
48
 Vector Magnetic Potential
(Cont’d)
 In classical physics, the vector magnetic
potential is viewed as an auxiliary
function with no physical meaning.
 However, there are phenomena in
quantum mechanics that suggest that the
vector magnetic potential is a real (i.e.,
measurable) field.

Lecture 7
49
 Magnetic Dipole
 A magnetic dipole comprises a small
current carrying loop.
 The point charge (charge monopole) is the
simplest source of electrostatic field. The
magnetic dipole is the simplest source of
magnetostatic field. There is no such thing
as a magnetic monopole (at least as far as
classical physics is concerned).

Lecture 7
50
 Magnetic Dipole (Cont’d)
 The magnetic dipole is analogous to the
electric dipole.
 Just as the electric dipole is useful in
helping us to understand the behavior of
dielectric materials, so the magnetic dipole
is useful in helping us to understand the
behavior of magnetic materials.

Lecture 7
51
 Magnetic Dipole (Cont’d)
 Consider a small circular loop of radius b carrying a
steady current I. Assume that the wire radius has a
negligible cross-section.

x
b

Lecture 7
52
 Magnetic Dipole (Cont’d)
 The vector magnetic potential is
evaluated for R >> b as
0 I 2 aˆ bd 
A(r ) 
4 
0 R
0 Ib 2 1 b sin  cos   

4 0   aˆ x sin    aˆ y cos   

2  d 
r r 
0 Ib b sin 

4
 aˆ x sin   aˆ y cos  
r2
 0 Ib 2
 aˆ 2
sin 
4 r
Lecture 7
53
 Magnetic Dipole (Cont’d)
 The magnetic flux density is evaluated
for R >> b as

0
B   A 
4 r 3
Ib aˆ r 2 cos   aˆ sin  
2

Lecture 7
54
 Magnetic Dipole (Cont’d)
 Recall electric dipole
p
E 3
aˆr 2 cos  aˆ sin  
4 0 r
p  electric dipole moment  Qd
 The electric field due to the electric charge
dipole and the magnetic field due to the
magnetic dipole are dual quantities.

Lecture 7
55
 Magnetic Dipole Moment
 The magnetic dipole moment can be
defined as 2
m  aˆ z Ib Magnitude of
the dipole
moment is the
Direction of the dipole moment product of the
is determined by the direction current and
of current using the right-hand the area of the
rule. loop.

Lecture 7
56
 Magnetic Dipole Moment
(Cont’d)
 We can write the vector magnetic potential
in terms of the magnetic dipole moment as
0 m sin   0 m  aˆ r
A  aˆ 2

4 r 4 r 2

 We can write the B field in terms of the

magnetic dipole moment as
0 0   1 
B 3
maˆ r 2 cos  aˆ sin      m    
4 r 4   r 
Lecture 7
57
 Divergence of B-Field
 The B-field is solenoidal, i.e. the
divergence of the B-field is identically
equal to zero:
B  0
 Physically, this means that magnetic
charges (monopoles) do not exist.
 A magnetic charge can be viewed as an
isolated magnetic pole.
Lecture 7
58
 Divergence of B-Field (Cont’d)
 No matter how small
the magnetic is N N
divided, it always has S

a north pole and a S

N
S
south pole.
N
 The elementary
source of magnetic
field is a magnetic I
S
dipole.
Lecture 7
59
 Magnetic Flux
 The magnetic flux
crossing an open
surface S is given by
B
S C
   Bds
S
Wb Wb/m2

Lecture 7
60
 Magnetic Flux (Cont’d)
 From the divergence theorem, we have

 Hence, the net magnetic flux leaving any closed surface is zero.
zero. This is another manifestation of the fact that there are no magnetic charges.

  B  0     B dv  0   B  d s  0
V S

Lecture 7
61
 Magnetic Flux and Vector
Magnetic Potential
 The magnetic flux across an open surface
may be evaluated in terms of the vector
magnetic potential using Stokes’s theorem:

   B  d s    A d s
S S

  A dl
C

Lecture 7
62