BAHIR DAR UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

DP’T OF CIVICS AND ETHICAL STUDIES
COURSE TITLE: FOUNDATION OF
DEMOCRACY AND DEMOCRATIC SYSTEM
COURSE CODE: ------CEST2022
ACADEMIC YEAR-------2014

BY : YESHIWAS ABEL
3/24/23 http://bdu.edu.et
www.facebook.com/bduethiopia 1
CHAPTER ONE; UNDERSTANDING DEMOCRACY: THE CONCEPT &THEORIES

1. Concept: Views, Approaches and

Elements
2. Theories on Democracy
DEFINITION OF DEMOCRACY
• Etymology
• two Greek words:
• ‘Demos’ – people

• ‘Kratia’ -rule/authority

• “Democracy is a government of people, by the

people and for the people.” Abram Lincoln
• Implication, democracy is the rule or
government of the people at large.
DEMOS….

It implies a system in which people are powerful

or, government in which the supreme/highest
political power always resides in the people.
This is known as popular sovereignty.
The power is exercised either directly or
indirectly.
 DEMOCRACY
Meaning of Democracy
 Democratic norms and principles are universal, but the institutions may vary in
time and space
 Strictly speaking, there are conceptual and methodological difficulties in
understanding and defining democracy.
 The word democracy is a term that comes from Greek and it is made up with
two words demos, which means people and kratos, mean to govern, to rule.
 “Democracy” can then be literally translated by the following terms:
Government of the People or Government of the Majority.
 people centered system, where the people are the heart, the root and also the
fruits.
 democracy is a state of government in which people hold the ruling power

either directly or indirectly

 the expression of alternative views, and the implementation of decision-

making procedures based on majority rule.

 democracy depends on individual citizens’ participation,

 "…government of the people, by the people and for the people" ( Abraham

Lincoln).

 To put it another way we can say that a government comes from the people; it

is exercised by the people, and for the purpose of the people’s own interests.
DEMOCRACY IS A SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT THAT MEETS
THREE ESSENTIAL CONDITIONS:

 meaningful and extensive competition among

individuals and organized groups (especially
political parties)
 highly inclusive level of political participation in
the selection of leaders and policies, at least
through regular and fair elections
 civil and political liberties — freedom of
expression, freedom of the press, freedom to form
and join organizations.
ORIGION AND EVOLUTION OF DEMOCRACY
 The birthplace of democracy was ancient Greece,
particularly Athens. In the Greek city-state, democratic
self-government was direct, the people in assembly
discussed and voted on major public issues.
 Plato proposed that government be entrusted to a small
elite of highly trained men, the philosopher-kings, who
were of superior moral fiber and intellectual capacities.
Aristotle, though he was more sympathetic towards
Democracy than Plato, believed it to be a corrupt form
of government.
THE RENAISSANCE OR ENLIGHTENMENT
 became catalysts of change in Europe.
Renaissance began with the revival of the
learning of ancient Greece and Rome. Educated
people started reading ancient texts,
rediscovering knowledge that had been lost or
forgotten during the Middle Ages also called the
Dark Ages, when feudalism, the tyranny of the
Christian church and wars kept the masses in
Europe poor, downtrodden and illiterate.
THE PROTESTANT MOVEMENT (REFORMATION)

 Martin Luther, the founder of the Protestant Movement,

was a firm believer in the authority of princes and had
no use for democracy. The Protestants and the
Catholics, after fighting many long drawn out and
bloody wars, had to learn to coexist peacefully despite
their religious differences. This new spirit of tolerance
became an accepted practice in politics too. Also, the
practice of self-government in some Protestant
churches promoted the idea of self-government in
politics as well.
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
 a movement against British rule of the American
colonies also had a strong element of democratic
idealism. The British kingdom had established
colonies on American soil.
 The slogan “no taxation without representation”
challenged British rule over the American
colonies.
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1789
 French revolutionary ideals of liberty, equality
and fraternity not only affected France but also
the whole of Europe.
 French revolution, spread these ideas throughout
the continent.
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
 Slavery was abolished first in theory and much
later in practice. The freeing of the Afro-
American slaves by Abraham Lincoln after the
American civil war in the mid-nineteenth century
dealt the final blow to this abhorrent practice of
enslaving human beings.
DEFINING FEATURES OF DEMOCRACY
 Democracy as a Way of Life
Democratic ethics is a set of values and attitudes
that is necessary for self- government.
 Democracy as a Form of Government
is a form of government organized in accordance
with the principles of popular sovereignty, political
equality, popular consultation, and majority rule
and minority rights, and the like.
DEMOCRACY AS A MORAL IMPERATIVE

 What, is imperative? It is basically a permanent aspiration of human

beings for freedom, for a better social and political order, one that is
more human and more or less egalitarian.
 Democracy as a Social Process
It is a continuous process of promoting equal access to fundamental
human rights and civil liberties for all. By this, we mean (1) the
fundamental rights of human person to life and security; (2) freedom
of religion, assembly, expression, press, association, etc.; (3)
economic, social, and cultural rights- the idea here being that
democracy is meaningless when the basic needs of the population
are not satisfied; and (4) the right of peoples, including the
inalienable right to self-determination.
DEMOCRACY AS A POLITICAL PRACTICE

 democracy is inconceivable without free and fair

elections, representative government, and an
independent judiciary. Moreover, these
institutions are unlikely to perform in a
satisfactory way in the absence of vibrant civil
society and a free press.
 WAYS/FORMS OF EXERCISING DEMOCRACY
A. Direct Democracy
 ‘all citizens’ without the intermediary of elected officials can participate in decision-

making process.

 The origin of direct democracy can be traced back to ancient Athens , all adult male

citizens met in assembly and made decisions.

 The equal right of all citizens to participate in the processes of government

 The difficulties of direct democracy

 Each person is treated as an equal, and each person is given a chance to directly influence

the policymaking process.

 In practice, however, this system is hard to implement.

 But Direct democracy can be put to local committees, schools and citizens' associa­tions,
 Egs. for direct democracy
 Referendum: an important bill passed by the legislature
must be put to the voters' final ratification.
 In case, if it is adopted by the required vote, it becomes a
law. Thus, veto power is in the hand of voters.
 Initiative: it is an arrangement whereby specified number
of voters may prepare the draft of law and may then
demand that either be adopted by the legislature or referred
to the people for acceptance at a general or special election.
 If approved by the required majority, it then becomes a law.
 Recall: means that voters have the right to call back their
elected representatives in case they are not satisfied with
their roles or behavior and then elect someone else instead.
 Petition: It is a request to public official or to the
government organ that seeks to correct wrong decisions or
B. INDIRECT (REPRESENTATIVE) DEMOCRACY

 the modern type of democracy that we have today.

 the whole people cannot directly participate in their own
affairs but through their representatives
 This political arrangement establishes an intermediary political
actor between the individual and the policy outputs of the state.
 Through the electoral process, one person or a group of people
are elected.
 and assigned with the task of making decisions on behalf of the
group of citizens that they represent.
FORMS AND TYPES OF DEMOCRACY

 Forms of Democracy
A- Direct Democracy
Also - pure or participatory form of democracy.
people are the ultimate power holders
 the power is directly exercised by the people
themselves.
 all people within state have a say in the day-to-
day governing processes.
 the will of the people is translated into public
policy (law) directly by people at mass meetings.
 all citizens, without any intermediary agents
directly exercise their powers by themselves.
 Every citizen represents him/herself to exercise
his/her power: no need of any representative of
the citizens in the decision-making processes.
TYPOLOGIES(MODELS) OF DEMOCRACY
procedural vs substantive democracy
substantive /minimalist democracy mainly focuses on what a government actually does.

It relates democracy with the final result of election , participation etc

The substantive view concentrates on the contents of policies made by government.

 Were as the procedural /maximalist view of democracy focuses on the process of

government ,or how the people govern. The procedural view of democracy sets forth

principles that describe how government should make decisions. The procedural model

could also be seen from the perspective of majoritarianism. interprets democracy, or

“government by the people" to mean government by the majority of the people

 
 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES AND VALUES OF DEMOCRACY

 Popular Sovereignty: refers to the idea that the only legitimate source of government authority

is the consent of the governed.

 In democracy the people are sovereign and the government is accountable to the people.

 Citizen Participation. Participation is the key role of citizens in democracy, It is not only their

right, but it is their duty.

 Equality: all people are equal, all individuals are valued equally, have equal opportunities, and

may not be discriminated against because of their religion, ethnic group, gender or sexual

orientation.

 The Supremacy of the Constitution: This is a principle that puts the constitution at the highest

level in the hierarchy of laws.

 Control of the Abuse of Power, prevent any elected official or group of people from misusing or

abusing their power(corruption)

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF DEMOCRACY

Democratic principles are:

 Indicators or signposts denoting that a particular state is
on the democracy track;
 standards of democracy by which its existence and
implementation is ensured; and
 pillars upon which democracy is founded.

Hence, they serve as foundations for designing or

formulating constitutions in democratic systems.
REGULAR, FREE AND FAIR ELECTION
 Elections must take place regularly within specified time.
 Elections must be free: there should not be intimidations
and threats to citizens during or before an election; and
 Fair: for every one without any discrimination, candidates
(e.g. political parties) running for elections should be
provided with equal opportunities
 Democratic elections also require the existence of
meaningful choices.
 The voting procedures must also enable voters to choose
their representatives correctly. the counting of votes must
provide accurate results and the reporting of the results
should be made public honesty.
PRINCIPLES OF DEMO…

Popular Sovereignty
 Popular sovereignty refers to the superiority of people in
holding power and authority in a democratic society.
 people are the sources for the authority and power:
 directly or elected representatives
 Governments derive (get) their power and authority from the
people in particularly modern representative democracy.
 Using this power, if government is not doing so, they can
also remove from the office.
PRINCIPLES OF DEMO…

Popular Sovereignty
 Popular sovereignty refers to the superiority of people in
holding power and authority in a democratic society.
 people are the sources for the authority and power:
 directly or elected representatives
 Governments derive (get) their power and authority from the
people in particularly modern representative democracy.
 Using this power, if government is not doing so, they can
also remove from the office.
POPULAR PARTICIPATION
 The result of active participation of people in
decision-making process, i.e. self-government.
 Popular participation (or participation of people)
is not only the right, but also the civic duty of
citizens.
EQUALITY BEFORE THE LAW
Equal protection of the law
 Principle of equality is a situation in which individuals
and group of individuals within a democratic society
enjoy similar right and duties.
 This demands that every law of a democratic state should
be applicable to all citizens in equal manner; regardless
of their differences:
 sex, colors, language, religion, culture, and other ethnic
and historical backgrounds. Equal protection of (or
equality before) the law also demands that every citizen
be answerable to (or observe/obey) the law/constitution of
the state in the same manner.
PRINCIPLES CONT…
 Similarly:
 Majority Rule and Minority Right
 Multi-Party System
 Separation of Powers
 The respect of human and Democratic Rights
PRINCIPLE OF RULE OF LAW
 law is a legal body governing the relations among
the people.
 rule of law implies that no one is above the law
(i.e., the fundamental law of the land, which is
the constitution).
EQUALITY BEFORE THE LAW
Equal protection of the law
 Principle of equality is a situation in which individuals
and group of individuals within a democratic society
enjoy similar right and duties.
 This demands that every law of a democratic state should
be applicable to all citizens in equal manner; regardless
of their differences:
 sex, colors, language, religion, culture, and other ethnic
and historical backgrounds. Equal protection of (or
equality before) the law also demands that every citizen
be answerable to (or observe/obey) the law/constitution of
the state in the same manner.
VALUES OF DEMOCRACY
Values are norms/assets that are necessary for a democratic
political system. These include:
 Tolerance- the willingness or ability to accept any kind of

differences as natural and to respect the rights of others.

 Shared Responsibility in Decision Making

 Rational Empiricism - requires that all opinions should be

heard before a decision of public policy is made.

  Discussion and Consent

 Civility- requires self-control, discipline, devotion to a

common cause, capacity to subordinate its private interest

and desires, etc.
 Agreement on Fundamentals
 Political Tolerance This means that while the majority of the people rule in a

democracy, the rights of the minority must be protected.

 Accountability and Transparency government officials are answerable to the

decisions and acts they took, responsible for their actions and openness of the

activities of government officials and institutions to the public.

 Regular, Free and Fair Elections, electing officials to represent them in

government

 Economic Freedom, government allows some private ownership of property and

businesses, and that the people are allowed to choose their own work

 Separation of power: legislative, executive, and judicial powers should be separated .

 Human Rights respect and protect the human rights and dignity of citizens.
 Accepting the Results of Elections, there are winners and losers, election
should be judged “free and fair,” ignoring election results is against
democratic principles.
 Multi-Party System , more than one political party must participate in
elections and play a role in government.
 The Rule of Law, no one is above the law, both government and the governed
are, and must be, subject to the laws of country.
 Separation of state and religion: state and religion are separated and act
independently without interfering in the affair each other.

 Constitutional government

 check and balance

 Majority Rule and Minority Rights

 THEORIES OF DEMOCRACY
 Liberal Concept of Democracy(minimal state)

 Stress on capitalism and individualism

 advocates the principle of private enterprise

 the guarantee of basic civil and political rights such as freedom of speech, religion, the right to elect and to be

elected, etc.

 a system of government in which the people govern themselves,

 Democratic government rests on public opinions

 Economic Democracy /Marxist Democracy/ - socialism – society

 the transfer of economic decision making power from the few to the many.

 social democracy calls for social justice and economic empowerment

 Aim to bring about equality and classless society

 Developmental Democracy
 Focus on participation
 human beings as capable of civic virtue.
 Good citizens aware of and participate in government and civic
affairs through voting, expression of their opinions to
representatives,
 Political and social equality exist in a developmental democracy
which advocates that people can achieve civic virtue and become
conscious through active participation in democracy.
TYPES OF DEMOCRACY

On the basis of the degree to which a government

makes intervention in the economic affairs of
people, democracy can further be categorized in
to liberal and non- liberal types.
1. Liberal Democracy
based on free market economy discourages the
intervention of a government in economic affairs of
a society.
LIBERAL CONT…
 The central idea of liberal democracy is political and
legal equality of individuals but not economic
equality.
 The role of the government in the economic spheres
of peoples’ life is considered to be laissez fair
(minimal) but that of the economic forces such as
market forces is something maximal (given supreme
place).
 The state establishes a framework within which the
economic forces could fulfill their own role of
harmonizing conflicting forces.
SOCIALIST DEMOCRACY(WELFARE STATE)
Named as socialist democracy - gives emphasis to strong
intervention of government in the economy.
 it is based on the acceptance of the objectives of
economic and social equality.
 To the proponents of socialist democracy, liberal
democracy encourages a society where there is class
contradiction and private property.
 But socialist democracy attempts to create classless
society by eliminating private properties
 It aims at creating a society in which there is complete
freedom from all social inequalities and economic
insecurity.
Consocinatinal democracy
.it focuses on democracy achieved with the
consensus among them.
.it is important for representation for diverse
societies
 CHAPTER TWO REPRESENTATION ,ELECTION, AND VOTING

 Definition of Concepts
 Representation-Representation is the activity of
making citizens’ voices, opinions, and
perspectives “present” in public policy making
processes
 First, geographical representation implies that each
region, be it a town or a city, a province or an
electoral district, has members of the legislature
whom it chooses and who are ultimately accountable
to their area.
 . Second, the ideological divisions within society
may be represented in the legislature, whether
through representatives from political parties or
independent representatives or a combination of both
 Third, functional representation implies a
legislature may be representative of the party-
political situation that exists within the country
even if political parties do not have an ideological
base. If half the voters vote for one political party
but that party wins no, or hardly any, seats in the
legislature, then that system cannot be said to
adequately represent the will of the people.
 Fourth, the concept of descriptive representation
considers that the legislature should be to some
degree a ‘mirror of the nation’ which should look,
feel, think and act in a way which reflects the
people as a whole. An adequately descriptive
legislature would include both men and women, the
young and the old, the wealthy and the poor, and
reflect the different religious affiliations, linguistic
communities and ethnic groups within a society.
 Election - a procedure to choose representatives
who will hold positions of authority within it.
 Electorate-the eligible voters in a political
democracy. a substantial majority of the mature
citizens
CONT…
• Referendum is the popular vote.
– The proposal or issue can itself be called a
referendum.
• Suffrage is a right or privilege of voting to elect
public officials and to adopt or reject legislation.
• Primary Election is a preliminary election in
which voters select a political party’s candidates
for public office.
CONT…
 Caucus is a meeting of members of a political
party at which the party conducts its business.
 caucus –vis- primary election:
 primary elections- voters select the party’s candidates
directly at polling places.
 Caucuses refer to meetings of the respective political
parties.
FEATURES AND PRINCIPLES OF DEMOCRATIC ELECTION

 All inclusive: Means that the election will be held on the

basis of universal suffrage in which all adult citizens will
have the right to vote. The age limit for voting is set at
18 years age.
 Equitable: when each citizen who can use his/her right
to vote has at his/her disposal a vote and when neither
his/her origin nor his/her sex, language, incomes or
possessions, job or social stratus/class, training, religion
or political convictions have an influence of whatever
kind on the assessment of the value of his/her vote.
 Free and fair: it is meant that neither law, nonviolence, nor
yet intimidation should prohibit candidates or voters from
presenting their views and casting their votes. Moreover,
voters should be autonomous to choose whomever they want.
And the notion of fairness implies that all computing political
parties should have equal chance and right to publicize their
views and political programs and every vote should have
equal weights. In order for the election to be free and fair
from any influence, the casting of votes should be done in a
secret ball.
 Secret Ballot: - to vote in secrecy
 Public and transparent: which means on the one
hand, that each citizen has the right to attend the
counting of the votes when the ballot box is
opened; this also means on the other hand, that it
is possible to completely follow the whole
process of the passage of the constituents’ votes:
starting from the ballots inserted into the ballot
box till the final counting undertaken to establish
the calculation that will eventually share out.
 Competitive: In competitive elections the chief
decision makers in a government are selected by
citizens who enjoy broad freedom to criticize
government, to express their criticism and to choose
among different alternatives. Democratic elections
must be competitive in the sense that it has to provide
citizens the freedom of speech, assembly, and
movement that are necessary to voice their criticisms
openly and to bring alternative policies and candidates
to the voters.
 Periodic: By a periodic election, it is meant that regular
elections occur within prescribed time limits. This is
because since elected officials must be accountable to the
people, they must return to the voters at prescribed intervals
to seek their mandate to continue in office. Hence, officials
in democratic systems must accept the risk of being voted
out of office. Moreover, it for example, enables the people
to change government they are not pleased with, and it also
avoids the possibility for a once elected government to stay
in office for an indefinite period.
 Democratic elections: No matter how well designed a
government is, it cannot be considered democratic
unless the officials who head the government are freely
elected by the citizens in a manner perceived to be
open and fair to all. The mechanism of an election may
vary. But the essentials are the same for all democratic
societies: access of all qualified citizens to the ballot,
protection at the individual against undue influence in
the casting of the ballot, and an open and honest
counting of the votes.
 Accepting the Results of Elections: In a democratic
election, there would be winners and losers of vote
to seize political power; if democracy is to succeed,
it is essential that political parties and their
members, even individuals be volunteers to
compete in elections and accept their results. Often
the losers of election may argue so strongly that
they refuse to accept the results of elections. Such
conditions will be against democratic principles
 An independent and neutral electoral board or
commission: it coordinates the election process.
 Peaceful Transition of Political Power: One of
the most important elements of a democratic
system is the prevalence of peaceful transition of
political power. Elections ensure that key
positions in government will be contested at
periodic intervals and that the transfer of
governmental authority is accomplished in a
peaceful and orderly manner. This avoids the evil
effects of taking political power by force.
ELECTIONS…
 The argument behind elections:
 It provides the electorate the chance to decide who
will govern at different levels, about the policies,
programs, and future directions of government action.
 elections also promote accountability.
 The idea of selecting leaders gained substantial
support in the 17th and 18th c, i.e. the
Enlightenment period:
1. philosophers argued that self-government is a natural
right of every person; and
2. that governments derive their just powers from the
consent of the governed.
ELECTIONS…
• Modern trend:
– Tendency to liberalize the qualifications for suffrage,
– any still apply some restrictions besides the obvious
standards of citizenship and an age [18 and 21]
– Literacy is often a qualification, and in many countries persons
convicted of a serious crime are deprived of voting rights.
• Woman Suffrage- right of women to share on equal terms
with men the political privileges afforded by
representative government and, more particularly, to vote
in elections .
 Types of Elections

Countries Years

U.S.A. 1870 (the 15th Amendment)

U.K. 1918 (partial); 1928 (full)

New Zealand 1893

Australia 1902

Finland 1906

Norway 1913

Ethiopia?
_______________
TYPES OF ELECTIONS
1. general election- In most common
 political party leaders select candidates for office.
2. primary elections prior to the general election campaign
 few nations- e.g. U.S.A. voters select the party’s candidates
for office. Progressive Era reformers introduced the primary
at the beginning of the 20th century as another way to weaken
the influence of political party machines in general elections.
3. Some states also provide for referendum voting. The
referendum is a process that allows citizens to vote
directly on proposed laws
 The election vs Referendum
 Election-an institution of representative
government.
 In an election, voters choose officials to act for them.
 The referendum, by contrast, is an institution of
direct democracy.
ELECTORAL SYSTEMS

1. Majority systems - the victorious candidate receive more than

50 percent of the vote.
2. plurality system- winning candidates need only receive more
votes than any opponent.
3. Proportional representation- seats are held by any group or
party is proportional to the number of votes with the purpose of:
– increasing the value of a vote to smaller or more marginal portions of a
national population.
– Reducing the power of a dominant political party and to provide
minority groups with a degree of representation that has been denied
them previously.
 Proportional representation tends to increase the
number of competitive political parties- e.g.
multiparty systems in Europe.
 plurality and majority systems usually reduce the
number of competitive political parties—e.g.
two-party system in the US.
PUBLIC OPINION
• Public opinion - the attitudes, perspectives, and
preferences of a population toward events,
circumstances, and issues of mutual interest.
• permanent factors- age, race, religion, geographical
location, economic status, and educational level, etc
• temporary factors-impact of current events; the
opinions of influential or authoritative persons; the
effect of the mass communications media; and the
concerted campaigns of public relations professionals
 public opinion polling information, especially
political information that helps to predict
elections or gauge the popularity of government
officials and of the candidates.
3.4. INTEREST GROUPS
• Interest Groups are groups, associations of people
who act or work together in support of a common
cause.
– professional associations, trade unions, labor
association, etc.
• They are often engaged in shaping policy outcomes
via influence, or lobbying. Their ultimate objective
is to influence the public policy decisions,
• They don’t aim to assume state power.
POLITICAL PARTIES AND PARTY SYSTEMS
• Political Parties
– are organizations that mobilize voters on behalf of a common
set of interests, concerns, and goals
– Their objective= controlling state power.
• They formulate political and policy agendas, select
candidates, conduct election campaigns, and monitor the
work of their elected representatives.
• Political parties link citizens and the government,
providing a means by which people can have a voice in
their government.
• Origins of Modern political parties:
• in Western Europe and the United States.
• Parties evolved through the struggle of contending
groups to grasp control of the apparatus of
government.
• Formed initially to advise monarchs,
• By the 17th and 18th centuries many legislative
bodies had begun to claim independent power bases
and privileges of their own.
• An early model of the modern party system
developed in Britain:
– the efforts of the Whig and Tory parties to control
government jobs and political influence.
• A party system also developed in the United
States in the decade following ratification of the
Constitution of the United States in 1788, pitting
members of the Federalist Party against members
of the Democratic-Republican Party.
• Origins of Modern political parties:
• in Western Europe and the United States.
• Parties evolved through the struggle of contending
groups to grasp control of the apparatus of
government.
• Formed initially to advise monarchs,
• By the 17th and 18th centuries many legislative
bodies had begun to claim independent power bases
and privileges of their own.
 Assumptions about party competition:
1. politics “naturally” involves conflict and division,
and
2. its true goals are to secure the economic interests and
political influence of groups divided along lines of
class, ethnicity, race, and religion.
CLASSIFICATION OF POLITICAL PARTIES
• Based on strategies for recruiting supporters.
1. Externally mobilized -parties develop around leaders
who lack power within an existing government.
– These leaders compensate by mobilizing and organizing a
popular base of support from among disaffected groups in
society.
– External mobilization has typically provided the origins
of social-democratic, Socialist, Communist, and Fascist
parties in Europe.
2. Internally mobilized parties- usually represent a
defensive strategy of counter-
– mobilization on the part of influential government
insiders. This strategy also involves efforts to recruit a
broad base of party members and supporters.
– Internally mobilized parties seek to neutralize the
organizational efforts of another party
– Conservative parties and Liberal parties in Europe have
more often used a strategy of counter-mobilization
PARTY SYSTEMS
 A political party system consists of all the parties
in a particular nation and the laws and customs
that govern their behavior.
• A) Multiparty systems - common in Parliamentary
governments based on proportional representation
• electoral arrangement, the number of legislative seats
held by any party depends on the proportion of votes
they received in the most recent election.
• Often form a coalition government.
• E.g.most of contemporary Western Europe (where
every system, including Great Britain, has at least
three and usually five or six significant parties).
 Critics argue:
 multiparty systems have sometimes contributed
to fragmentation and political instability, as in
the Weimar Republic in Germany (1919-1933),
the Fourth Republic in France (1946-1958), and
Italy after World War II.
• In a bi-party system, control of government
power shifts between two dominant parties.
• Two-party systems most frequently develop when
electoral victory requires only a simple plurality
vote, that is, the winner gets the most votes, but
not necessarily a majority of votes.
• as in USA, Great Britain and Canada.
• A single-party system in which one party
nominates all candidates for office. Thus there is
no competition for elected offices.
• The only choices left to voters are
– (1) to decide whether or not to vote and
– (2) to vote “yes” or “no” for the designated candidate.
• Single-party systems have characterized
Communist Party governments and other
authoritarian regimes.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PARTY SYSTEMS BASED ON ELECTORAL
VOLATILITY AND PREDICTABILITY OF WINNER(S)

Party System Electoral Volatility Predictability of

Winner(s)
Multiparty Systems High Low
Bi-Party System Low High
Single-Party System Low High
INTEREST …
 Participation:
 They act as substitutes to political parties, allowing citizens the
opportunity of expressing their interests in a particular issue.
 Protecting Minorities:
 In most democratic political systems pressure groups allow minority
interests to express themselves and to be represented well.
  Legitimizing Roles:
 Pressure groups play roles in legitimizing the function of government.
 Criticizing Government:
 Unlike many members of parliament who tend to be generalists,
pressure groups are highly specialized and motivated ones.
 Pressure groups criticize and provide alternative views government
policies due to their specialization, experiences, and devotion.
 Maintaining Freedoms:
 promote strong campaigns about particular issues, creating widespread
public support, which governments cannot ignore.
 Loyalty to a Political Party
 Voters with the strongest allegiance to a party
often vote a straight-party ticket they select only
candidates from that party. Weak party voters are
more likely to switch their vote’s to the rival
party from time to time. The number of
independent voters, those who belong to no party,
has increased in recent years.
 Campaign Issues
Television and higher levels of education help modern voters
to be more informed.
 The Voter’s Image of Candidate
Issues with the greatest influence include Social Security,
health care, taxes, education, affirmative action, abortion, gun
rights, and the environment. The way voters perceive issues is
just as important as the issues themselves. The image of the
candidates in the voters’ minds is closely related to public
perception of the issues. Most voters want a president who
appears to be trustworthy and strong.
 Propaganda
 Propaganda is information that is used to
influence opinion. Propaganda is not necessarily
untrue, but it is used to support a predetermined
objective.
 Labeling: name-calling, identifying candidate
with a term
 Spin: interpreting from a particular point of view
 Card Stacking: only one side of facts presented
 Bandwagon: do it because everyone else is doing it
 Profile of Regular Voters
People who vote regularly tend to have positive
attitudes toward citizenship and government. The
more educated people are, the more likely they are to
vote. Middle-aged citizens have the highest voter
turnout rates. Voter regularity also increases with
income level.
THE ROLES OF MASS MEDIA

The mass media, both electronic and print,

transmits information to large people. 
 The mass media serves as:
 a platform (forum) for public debate;
 an instrument to influence public opinion;
 a catalyst for social, economic, political and cultural
movements;
 a channel for diplomatic relations;
 a vehicle by which government officials and agencies
speak to one another;
 Shaping impressions, etc.
VOTING AND VOTING BEHAVIOR
 Voting behavior refers to how people tend vote in
their political system
 Voting behavior refers to how people tend vote in
their political system
 factors such as social, economic, cultural, class,
ethnic, political etc issues.
MAJOR FACTORS INFLUENCE VOTERS’ DECISIONS

 Personal Background
 Includes upbringing, family, age, occupation,
and income level, Education, religion, and racial
or ethnic heritage are other background factors
that might influence a voter’sdecision.Many
voters are cross-pressured, which means that
elements in their backgrounds might have
conflicting influences on their final decisions.
CHAPTER THREE;THE CONCEPT AND EXPLANATION OF
DEMOCRATIZATION

 Modernization theory
 Structural approach
 Transitions approach
MODERNIZATION THEORY

 The basic claim of the modernization approach is,

that the more well to do a nation, the greater the
chances it will sustain democracy.
STRUCTURAL APPROACH

 According to the structuralist approach to

democratization, if no bourgeois, no democracy
TRANSITIONS APPROACH
WAVES OF DEMOCRATIZATION PROCESS: THE CASE OF AFRICA

 According to the famous American political scientist, Samuel

Huntington, there are three waves of democratization process.
The first wave of democratization occurred between 1828 and
1926, which supposedly affected Western Europe, and North
America. The second wave of democratization extended
between 1945 up to 1962. It specifically refers to the
emergence of new democratic political systems in Asia, Africa,
and Latin America. The third wave of democratization
extended between 1974 up until the 1990s, it subsumes
democratization in Greece, Spain, Portugal and the collapse of
state bureaucratic socialism in Eastern Europe, Asia and Africa.
SOCIO- POLITICAL FORCES INVOLVED IN THE PROCESSES OF
DEMOCRATIZATION AND POLITICAL LIBERALIZATION

 Religious movements and organizations.

 Trade unions
 Students movements and protests
 Media (Printed Press)
 Professional associations & Human Rights
organizations.
 See each of in details
ACTORS IN DEMOCRATIZATION PROCESS
Roles of Civil Societies in Democratization Process
CS= voluntary, non-profit, non-military, non-governmental,
autonomous and legitimate associations.
Objective: achieving the common good of the community
or public interests, without of capturing state power.
Concern of civil societies: social, economic, political, religious,
cultural, or a combination of these concerns.
Scope of organization and operation: from local to (national and
international) levels with the aim of influencing public policy at
local, national and international level.
 Examples: Traditional associations, different local and
international non-governmental organizations (NGOs), interest
groups and other civic associations.
POLITICAL PARTIES
 Political parties, sometimes known as political
societies, are organized group of individuals or a
group that attempts to exercise power in a political
system by winning control of the government or
influencing governmental policy.
 Their roles include:
1. encourage popular interest and participation in politics through
formulation of policy
2. Alternative leadership
3. providing electorates with choices
4. serve as channels of communication
5. Political parties are also representative institutions. A party
represents its ideology, policies, members and the interests of
those who voted for it.
INTEREST/PRESSURE GROUPS
 Pressure groups are organized groups that exercise of
influence or pure pressure on political institutions with
the intention of securing favorable decisions or
preventing the unfavorable ones.
 ranges of organized groups possessing both formal
structures and common interests.
 As part of their activities, they seek to influence
government at the local, national and international
levels without seeking election to representative bodies
INTEREST …
 Participation:
 They act as substitutes to political parties, allowing citizens the
opportunity of expressing their interests in a particular issue.
 Protecting Minorities:
 In most democratic political systems pressure groups allow minority
interests to express themselves and to be represented well.
  Legitimizing Roles:
 Pressure groups play roles in legitimizing the function of government.
 Criticizing Government:
 Unlike many members of parliament who tend to be generalists,
pressure groups are highly specialized and motivated ones.
 Pressure groups criticize and provide alternative views government
policies due to their specialization, experiences, and devotion.
 Maintaining Freedoms:
 promote strong campaigns about particular issues, creating widespread
public support, which governments cannot ignore.
ROLES…

The roles of civil societies in to democratization

processes include: 
 encouraging citizens to influence their government to
formulate better policies and undertake sound actions;
 advocating prevail the rule of law and democratic culture in a
country;
 fostering fair, more honest, transparent and accountable
governance;
 Put pressure on the government to change public policies in
favor of the people; etc.
ROLES…

Hence, the existence of well established and

strong civil societies in a democratic state is
essential for monitoring and influencing
government decisions and actions.
INTEREST/PRESSURE GROUPS
 Pressure groups are organized groups that exercise of
influence or pure pressure on political institutions with
the intention of securing favorable decisions or
preventing the unfavorable ones.
 ranges of organized groups possessing both formal
structures and common interests.
 As part of their activities, they seek to influence
government at the local, national and international
levels without seeking election to representative bodies
INTEREST …
 Participation:
 They act as substitutes to political parties, allowing citizens the
opportunity of expressing their interests in a particular issue.
 Protecting Minorities:
 In most democratic political systems pressure groups allow minority
interests to express themselves and to be represented well.
  Legitimizing Roles:
 Pressure groups play roles in legitimizing the function of government.
 Criticizing Government:
 Unlike many members of parliament who tend to be generalists,
pressure groups are highly specialized and motivated ones.
 Pressure groups criticize and provide alternative views government
policies due to their specialization, experiences, and devotion.
 Maintaining Freedoms:
 promote strong campaigns about particular issues, creating widespread
public support, which governments cannot ignore.
CHAPTER FOUR: GRASS ROOT DEMOCRACY AND POPULAR
POLITICAL PARTICIPATION

 Grassroots democracy is a tendency towards

designing political processes in which decision-
making authority is practically shifted to the
lowest administrative and/or geographic level of
organization
FEDERALISM, UNITARISM AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS

 Federalism vs Federations
 federalism refers to an ideology: a normative
principle, while federations refer to institutions.
Federalism as a political philosophy is essentially an
organizing principle.
 Federation is descriptive concept referring to the
actual system of govern­ments.
FEDERALISM
 Decentralization refers to the idea of power
sharing power and transfer between and/or from
the central government and sub-national units,
such as regional or local governments and
peoples, civil society or private sector in
decision-making process.
 Federalism as an organizing principle:
 advocates a ‘multi-tiered government
 combining elements of shared-rule through common
institutions for some purposes and regional self-rule’
for constituent units for some other purposes,
 normative principle is the perpetuation of both union
and autonomy,
CONSTITUTION AND THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK

 The Concept of “Constitution”

 To constitute means to make up, order, or form.
Thus a nation’s constitution should pattern a
political system.
 Constitution, as it is used in political and legal
studies, is set of fundamental system of law,
written or unwritten, of a sovereign state,
established or accepted guide for governing the
state.
 it is the “most basic law of a polity” that
establishes the nature and limitations of the
government.
 fixes the limits and defines the relations of the
legislative, judicial, and executive powers of the state,
thus setting up the basis for government.
 common functions and purposes:
1. The constitution as covenant, symbol, and
aspiration:
 constitutional text transforms itself into a semi-sacred
covenant, serving the unifying function of a civil relation.
2. A Constitution as a Charter for Governments:
 sketch the fundamental modes of legitimate governmental
operations.
 3) A constitution as sham/cosmetic or real, has a
principal function.
 nation to hide its failures behind ideals. But, in so far as a
text is authoritative, it renews nationals/citizens/ as better
selves.
 4) A constitution as a guardian of fundamental
rights:
 embodies constitutionalism, it must protect substantive
rights by limiting the power of those even freely chosen
representatives.
 Most fundamentally,
 the constitution entails normative political theory, the issue
becomes far more complex. The minimum standard he
would use to test a practice’s legitimacy is congruence with
both the document and tradition.
 Judicial review
 refers to the power (usually) of courts to review and guard
the statutes and governmental actions to determine
whether they conform to rules and principles laid down in
constitutions.
 based on the idea that a constitution—which dictates the
nature, functions, and limits of a government—is the
supreme law.
 Consequently, any actions by a government that violate the
principles of its constitution are invalid.
 in most countries with federal systems judicial
review power belongs to:
 Supreme Courts
 In England the final authority on constitutional
questions is the legislative body (Parliament), not
the courts.
 In today’s Ethiopia, the power of judicial review
constitutionally belongs to the upper house of the
legislative;
IV. GOVERNANCE AND POLICY MAKING
4.1. Constitution and the Legal Framework
• Constitution,
– as it is used in political and legal studies, is set of fundamental system of law,
– It is the most basic law of a polity that establishes the nature and limitations of
the government.
– written or unwritten, of a sovereign state, established or accepted guide for
governing the state. A constitution fixes the limits and defines the relations of
the legislative, judicial, and executive powers of the state, thus setting up the
basis for government. It also provides guarantees of certain rights to the
people. The constitution may be codified (as in the United States) or
uncodified (as in Great Britain & Israel) embodying numerous documents and
customs defining the relationship of the Crown, the Parliament, and the courts
to the citizens.
POLITICAL CULTURE, SOCIALIZATION, INTEREST AGGREGATION
AND ARTICULATION

 studies the individual’s feelings and attitudes

towards his/ her political system, where as the
later tries to aggregate these individual
orientations to gain a system wide and even a
comparative perspective on political culture.
Political culture is first and foremost political
education. Specifically speaking, political
culture reefers to people's predominant beliefs,
attitudes, va