What is Maintenance?

All actions necessary for retaining an item, or

restoring to it, a serviceable condition, include
servicing, repair, modification, overhaul,
inspection and condition verification.
 Keep system’s equipment in working order.
 To repair the equipment after FAILURE.
Purpose of Maintenance
• Attempt to maximize performance of
production equipment efficiently and
regularly
• Prevent breakdown or failures
• Minimize production loss from failures
• Increase reliability of the operating systems
Principle Objectives in Maintenance
• To achieve product quality and customer
satisfaction through adjusted and serviced
equipment
• Maximize useful life of equipment
• Keep equipment safe and prevent safety
hazards
• Minimize frequency and severity of
interruptions
• Maximize production capacity – through high
utilization of facility
Failure
Failure – inability to produce work in appropriate
manner
Types of Failure
Types of Failure
 Functional Failure
the inability to meet the specified
performance standard
 Potential Failure
a physical condition which indicates that
the failure process has started
 Hidden Failure
Failure is not apparent until the function is
attempted
P-F CURVE:

The majority of failures do not occur instantaneously but

develop over a period of time.
Current Maintenance Strategies
 Fix it when it fails or run until failure
 Time based (calendar time or running
time)
 Condition based
Types of Modern Maintenance
Types of Maintenance
• Maintenance may be classified into four categories:
• (some authors prefer three categories- scheduled and
preventive maintenances are merged)

• Corrective or Breakdown maintenance

• Scheduled maintenance
• Preventive maintenance
• Predictive (Condition-based) maintenance
Corrective or Breakdown Maintenance
• Corrective or Breakdown maintenance implies that
repairs are made after the equipment is failed and can
not perform its normal function anymore

• Quite justified in small factories where:

 Down times are non-critical and repair costs are less than
other type of maintenance
 Financial justification for scheduling are not felt
Disadvantages of Corrective
Maintenance
• Breakdown generally occurs inappropriate times leading
to poor and hurried maintenance
• Excessive delay in production & reduces output
• Faster plant deterioration
• Increases chances of accidents and less safety for both
workers and machines
• More spoilt materials
• Direct loss of profit
• Can not be employed for equipments regulated by
statutory provisions e.g. cranes, lift and hoists etc
Scheduled Maintenance
• Scheduled maintenance is a stitch-in-time
procedure and incorporates
inspection
lubrication
repair and overhaul of equipments
• If neglected can result in breakdown
• Generally followed for:
overhauling of machines
changing of heavy equipment oils
cleaning of water and other tanks etc.
Preventive Maintenance (PM)
 Principle – “Prevention is better than cure”
 Procedure - Stitch-in-time
 It
• locates weak spots of machinery and equipments
• provides them periodic/scheduled inspections and
minor repairs to reduce the danger of unanticipated
breakdowns
Advantages of PM
• Advantages:
• Reduces break down and thereby down time
• Lass odd-time repair and reduces over time of crews
• Greater safety of workers
• Lower maintenance and repair costs
• Less stand-by equipments and spare parts
• Better product quality and fewer reworks and scraps
• Increases plant life
• Increases chances to get production incentive bonus
Predictive (Condition-based)
Maintenance
• In predictive maintenance, machinery conditions
are periodically monitored and this enables the
maintenance crews to take timely actions, such as
machine adjustment, repair or overhaul

• It makes use of human sense and other sensitive

instruments, such as
• audio gauge, vibration analyzer, amplitude meter,
pressure, temperature and resistance strain gauges etc.
Predictive Maintenance (Contd.)
• Unusual sounds coming out of a rotating
equipment predicts a trouble
• An excessively hot electric cable predicts a
trouble
• Simple hand touch can point out many unusual
equipment conditions and thus predicts a
trouble
Signal Transducers/converters
• It converts one standardized transmission signal to another form of signal.
• For example, a converter used to convert a 4–20 mA current signal into a 3–15 psig
pneumatic signal (commonly used by valve actuators)
transmitters
• A device that converts a reading from a sensor or transducer into a standard signal and
transmits that signal to a monitor or controller.

Differential Pressure Type Pressure Radar type Level Magnetic type Flow
Transmitter Transmitter Transmitter
SIGNALS
• PNEUMATIC SIGNAL - signals produced by changing the air pressure in a signal
pipe in proportion to the measured change in a process variable. The common
industry standard pneumatic signal range is 3–15 psig.
• ANALOG SIGNAL - The most common standard electrical signal is the 4–20 mA
current signal. With this signal, a transmitter sends a small current through a set
of wires. The current signal is a kind of gauge in which 4 mA represents the
lowest possible measurement, or zero, and 20 mA represents the highest
possible measurement.
• DIGITAL SIGNAL - discrete levels or values that are combined in specific ways to
represent process variables and also carry other information, such as diagnostic
information. The methodology used to combine the digital signals is referred to
as protocol (Foundation fieldbus,HART, Profibus)
controllers
• A device that receives data from a measurement instrument,
compares that data to a programmed setpoint, and, if necessary,
signals a control element to take corrective action. Local controllers
are usually one of the three types: pneumatic, electronic or
programmable. Controllers also commonly reside in a digital control
system.
Calibration
• A test during which known values of measurand are applied to the
transducer and corresponding output readings are recorded under
specified conditions.
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES
• CALIBRATION RANGE – the region between the limits within which a quantity is
measured, received or transmitted, expressed by stating the lower and upper range
values.
• ZERO VALUE- lower end of the range.
• SPAN- defined as the algebraic difference between the upper and lower range values.
• INSTRUMENT RANGE - Capability of the instrument.
• For example, an electronic pressure transmitter may have a nameplate instrument
range of 0–750 pounds per square inch, gauge (psig) and output of 4-to-20 milliamps
(mA). However, the engineer has determined the instrument will be calibrated for 0-
to-300 psig = 4-to-20 mA. Therefore, the calibration range would be specified as 0-to-
300 psig = 4-to-20 mA. In this example, the zero input value is 0 psig and zero output
value is 4 mA. The input span is 300 psig and the output span is 16 mA.
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES
• Accuracy - The ratio of the error to the full scale output or the ratio of the
error to the output, expressed in percent span or percent reading, respectively.
• Tolerance- : Permissible deviation from a specified value; may be expressed in
measurement units, percent of span, or percent of reading.
• For example, you are assigned to perform the calibration of the previously
mentioned 0-to-300 psig pressure transmitter with a specified calibration
tolerance of ±2 psig. The output tolerance would be: The calculated tolerance
is rounded down to 0.10 mA, because rounding to 0.11 mA would exceed the
calculated tolerance. It is recommended that both ±2 psig and ±0.10 mA
tolerances appear on the calibration data sheet if the remote indications and
output milliamp signal are recorded.
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES
• Traceability(ANSI/NCSL Z540-1-1994 ) - the property of a result of a
measurement whereby it can be related to appropriate standards,
generally national or international standards, through an unbroken
chain of comparisons.
Instrument error
• Algebraic difference between the indication and the actual value of
the measured variable.
span error
Zero error
Combined Zero and Span Error
Linearization Error
Safety Instrumented System
• Instrumented system used to implement one or more safety
instrumented functions. An SIS is composed of any combination of
sensor (s), logic solver (s), and final elements(s). designed to prevent
or mitigate hazardous events by taking a process to a safe state when
predetermined conditions are violated. Other common terms used
are safety interlock systems, emergency shutdown systems (ESD), and
safety shutdown systems (SSD).
FUNCTION OF SAFETY INSTRUMENTED SYSTEM

• THE FUNCTION OF SIS IS TO BRING THE PLANT TO A SAFE STATE

FROM HAZARDOUS STATE.
• BY DESIGN, SIS ARE SEPARATE AND INDEPENDENT FROM BASIC
PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM.
• COMPLIANCE TO EXISTING WORKING STANDARDS AND
REGULATIONS
• PREVENT CATASTROPHIC INCIDENTS
SAFETY INTEGRITY FUNCTION
• A Safety Instrumented Function (SIF) is a safety function with a specified
Safety Integrity Level (SIL) that is implemented by the SIS to achieve or
maintain a safe state. A SIF’s sensors, logic solver and final elements act
together to detect a hazard and bring the process to a safe state.
• Example:
• A process vessel sustains a buildup of pressure, which should open a
vent valve. The specific safety hazard is overpressure of the
vessel. .When pressure rises above the normal set points, a pressure-
sensing instrument detects the increase. Logic (PLC, relay, hard-wired,
etc.) then opens a vent valve to return the system to a safe state.
SAFETY INTEGRITY LEVEL
• A measure of safety system performance, in terms of probability of
failure on demand (PFD). This convention was chosen based on the
numbers: it is easier to express the probability of failure rather than
that of proper performance (e.g., 1 in 100,000 vs. 99,999 in 100,000).
There are four discrete integrity levels associated with SIL: SIL 1, SIL 2,
SIL 3, and SIL 4. The higher the SIL level, the higher the associated
safety level, and the lower probability that a system will fail to
perform properly. As the SIL level increases, typically the installation
and maintenance costs and complexity of the system also increase.
PRESSURE AND FORCE
• The pressure of almost any liquid or gas that is stored or
moved must be known to ensure safe and reliable operations.
Pressure is force divided by the area over which that force is
applied. Force is anything that changes or tends to change
the state of rest or motion of a body. Area is the number of
unit squares equal to the surface of an object. The formulas
relating pressure, force, and area are:
Atmospheric Pressure
• The pressure due to the weight of the
atmosphere above the point where it is
measured.
• See Figure 9-2. Atmospheric pressure
changes at different elevations because
at higher elevations there is less weight
of air above that elevation than at lower
elevations. At mean sea level, the
standard pressure of air is 14.696 psi,
usually rounded to 14.7 psi. This value is
often expressed as 1 atmosphere of
pressure.
 Head pressure
• Actual height of a column of liquid. A
container or vessel can be any shape,
but head is only determined by the
height of the liquid. For example, the
head of water in water towers of
different shape depends only on the
height of the water.
• See Figure 9-3. Head is expressed in static
pressure
units of length such as inches or feet, of the
and includes a statement of which fluid
liquid is being used. For example,
head may be expressed as feet of
water or inches of mercury.
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
• The pressure due to the head of a
liquid column. Frequently, this is
referred to as pressure head. Pressure
is independent of the shape of the
container and depends only on the
properties of the fluid and the height.
For example, mercury and water have
very different densities. Since mercury
is much denser than water, a shorter
column of mercury produces a
hydrostatic pressure equivalent to a
much taller column of water. See
Figure 9-4.
PASCAL’S LAW
• Pascal’s law is a law stating that the pressure
applied to a confined static fluid is transmitted
with equal intensity throughout the fluid. A
hydraulic press shows the application of Pascal’s
law. For example, two cylinders of different
diameters are filled with hydraulic fluid and
fitted with pistons.
 PASCAL’S LAW

For instance, consider two cylinders of different diameters, filled with hydraulic fluid and equipped with pistons, as shown in
Figure 9-5. These cylinders are connected in a manner that when the pressure is increased in the smaller pump cylinder, the
pressure also rises in the larger load cylinder. The force on the larger piston is significantly greater than the force on the smaller
piston because the increased pressure is applied over the larger surface area of the load piston. As a result, the force applied to
the small cylinder is amplified. However, the movement of the large cylinder is proportionally less.
There are many different ways to report pressure, depending on the application. Pressure is
reported in many units as well as on different scales.
The four common pressure scales are absolute, gauge, vacuum, and differential pressure.
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
• Pressure measured with a perfect vacuum as the zero point of
the scale. When measuring absolute pressure, the units
increase as the pressure increases. Absolute pressure cannot
be less than zero and is unaffected by changes in atmospheric
pressure. Certain equations that relate pressure to other
variables call for the use of absolute pressure. Absolute zero
pressure is a perfect vacuum. Absolute zero pressure cannot be
reached in practice.
gauge PRESSURE
• Pressure measured with atmospheric pressure as
the zero point of the scale. When measuring gauge
pressure, the units increase as the pressure
increases. Negative gauge pressure is gauge
pressure that is less than atmospheric pressure.
Negative gauge pressure indicates the presence of a
partial vacuum. The only difference between
absolute pressure and gauge pressure is the zero
point of the scale.
Vacuum pressure
• Pressure less than atmospheric pressure measured with
atmospheric pressure as the zero point of the scale.
When measuring vacuum, the units increase as the
pressure decreases. The differences between absolute
pressure and vacuum pressure are the zero point and
direction of the scale.
• Vacuum pressure measurement is used when a process is
maintained at less than atmospheric pressure. For
example, a vacuum pressure gauge may be installed on
the suction side of a pump to check for a clogged suction
line, a dirty strainer, or a closed suction valve.
differential pressure
• Difference in pressure between two measurement
points in a process. The actual pressure at the
different points may not be known and there is no
reference pressure used. The two pressures may be
above or below atmospheric pressure.
• Pressure drop is a pressure decrease that occurs due
to friction or obstructions as an enclosed fluid flows
from one point in a process to another.
differential pressure
MANOMETERS
• Device for measuring pressure with a liquid-filled tube.
• A manometer is the simplest device for measuring pressure.
• In a manometer, a fluid under pressure is allowed to push against a liquid in
a tube. The movement of the liquid is proportional to the pressure. Water is
the most common liquid used in manometers. Other liquids may be used as
long as the densities are known. However, the EPA discourages the use of
mercury.
• The common types of manometers are the U-tube manometer, inclined
tube manometer, well type manometer, and the barometer.
U-tube MANOMETERS
• Clear tube bent into the shape
of an elongated letter U. Many
U-tube manometers have a
graduated scale placed in the
center between the vertical
columns, or legs, with the scale
markings increasing above and
below the zero point. Other
manometers have a scale that
can be adjusted up or down to
make it easier to set the zero
point on the scale at the
manometer liquid level.
MANOMETER operation
• In operation, different pressures are applied to the two halves of the U-
tube. One column may have atmospheric pressure applied while the
other column is connected to the process. This is used to measure
gauge pressure.
• For example, to measure the draft of a boiler, the manometer has one
end of the tube connected to the breeching or the flue and the other
column open to air to measure the pressure difference. If the
manometer liquid is water and the applied pressure causes the water to
rise 1¹⁄₂″ on one side and to fall 1¹⁄₂″ on the other side, the total height, or
head, of the water is 3″. Care must be taken when using U-tube
manometers. Overpressure can cause the liquid to spill out the end of
the tube.
inclined-tube MANOMETERS
• A manometer with a reservoir
serving as one end and the
measuring column at an angle to
the horizontal to reduce the
vertical height. The fill liquid is
usually water. Since an inclined-
tube manometer must be
mounted level to the ground, a
bubble level or a screw type
leveling adjustment is often
included with an inclined-tube The leveling bubble in an inclined-tube manometer helps ensure
that the manometer is level, or horizontal, which is important for
manometer. getting accurate pressure readings. The bubble shows whether the
manometer is level or not, and adjustments can be made to level
it if needed.
inclined-tube MANOMETER operation
• The purpose of the angled tube is to lengthen the scale
for easier reading.
• For example, when the angle is 30°, 1 vertical inch
becomes 2″ on the inclined scale. The scale is then
stretched proportionally to enable an accurate reading.
This type of manometer is used for low-pressure
applications because it is difficult to accurately read low
pressures in a vertical tube.
Well-type MANOMETERS
• A manometer with a vertical
glass tube connected to a metal
well, with the measuring liquid in
the well at the same level as the
zero point on the tube scale. The
pressure to be measured is
applied to the well side and the
reading taken on the tube side. A
well-type manometer is simpler
to read than a U-type
manometer since only one
measurement is required.
Well-type MANOMETER operation
• An applied pressure will push down the liquid level in the well
and the liquid level in the tube will rise just as in a U-tube
manometer.
• In a well-type manometer, the well has a much larger surface
area than the area of the tube. Therefore, the level in the
tube changes proportionally more than the level in the well.
The actual applied pressure is equal to the difference between
the increased level of the liquid in the column and the
decreased level of the liquid in the well. Since it is difficult to
read a change in level of the liquid in the well, all
measurements are taken on the tube side of the manometer
and a compensated measurement scale is used.
barometers
• Manometer used to measure atmospheric
pressure. Barometric pressure is a pressure
reading made with a barometer. The earliest
barometer was a long vertical glass tube that
had been sealed at the bottom and filled with
mercury. The open end was then turned upside
down into a container of mercury without
allowing any air into the tube. The mercury in
the tube falls to a level where the head of the
mercury is equal to the atmospheric pressure.
When the atmospheric pressure changes, the
level of the mercury changes. A scale along the
tube indicates the height of the column of
mercury, equal to the barometric pressure,
measured in inches or millimeters.
PRESSURE –MECHANICAL PRESSURE
SENSORS
diaphragm
diaphragm
• Mechanical
A pressure-sensing
pressure sensor consisting of a thin, flexible disc
diaphragm is a thin, flexible
that flexes in response to a change in pressure. Pressure-
disc made of materials like
sensing diaphragms
steel, rubber, or other are commonly made of steel, stainless
metals.titanium,
steel, It flexes in response
beryllium copper, bronze, rubber, or other
to changes in pressure and is
materials. A diaphragm is usually secured at its outer edges
usually held in place
between
between two matching base
flanges with a plates resembling flanges. A spring
spring toon
acting counteract the of the diaphragm may be used to
the center
pressure. The diaphragms
provide the counteracting force to the applied pressure.
come in different sizes and
Diaphragms
shapes depending varyoninthethickness and area and may be flat or
pressure theyto
convoluted need to
provide greater displacement. The larger ones
measure. Thicker diaphragms
are made of thinner materials for lower pressures and the
are used for higher pressures
smaller
and thinner ones
ones are made of thicker materials for higher
for lower
pressures.
pressures.
Pressure spring/bourdon tube
• A mechanical pressure sensor consisting of a
hollow tube formed into a helical, spiral, or C
shape. To construct a pressure spring, a tube
made from flattened, seamless metal tubing is
formed into the desired shape. Beryllium
copper, steel, and stainless steel are commonly
used materials. The spring is welded, brazed, or
flanged to metal tubing that admits the
pressurized fluid from the process. The wall
thickness determines the maximum pressure
for a pressure spring.
• As the tube is filled with pressurized fluid, the
increasing pressure tends to return the spring
to its original circular cross section. This
straightens the tube and causes movement of
the end of the spring.
bellows
• A mechanical pressure sensor consisting of a one-
piece, collapsible, seamless metallic unit with
deep folds formed from thin-wall tubing with an
enclosed spring to provide stability, or with an
assembled unit of welded sections. The
deflection of a bellows is dependent on its
diameter, its thickness, and the material. The free
end of the bellows is attached to a linkage that
moves a pointer, or it is linked to a transducer.
• A design for differential pressure measurement
has one bellows as part of a low-pressure
chamber and the other bellows as part of a
high-pressure chamber. The differential
movement of the bellows is linked to a pointer
through a rack-and pinion system.
Electrical pressure
instruments
ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS
• An electrical transducer is a device that converts input energy
into output electrical energy.
• A pressure transducer is often used to convert the mechanical
displacement of a diaphragm caused by a change in applied
external force into an electrical signal.
• A secondary converter, such as an analog to digital converter,
converts the analog electrical signal to a digital signal. However,
all secondary converters require a power supply to produce a
signal of sufficient strength for conditioning or transmission.
pressure Transmitters

• Pressure transducer with a power supply and a device

that conditions and converts the transducer output into
a standard analog or digital output.
• A pressure switch is a pressure-sensing device that
provides a discrete output (contact make or break) when
applied pressure reaches a preset level within the
switch.
Resistance pressure transducer
• A diaphragm pressure sensor
with a strain gauge as the
electrical output element.
Resistance pressure transducers
are the most widely used
electrical pressure transducers.
A strain gauge is a transducer
that measures the deformation,
or strain, of a rigid body as a
result of the force applied to the
body.
capacitance pressure transducer
• A diaphragm pressure sensor with a
capacitor as the electrical element. A
basic capacitor consists of two small,
thin electrically conductive plates of
equal area that are parallel to one
another and separated by a dielectric
material. The capacitive plates are
typically constructed of stainless steel,
but other alloys are used in highly
corrosive service.
piezoelectric pressure transducer
• Diaphragm pressure sensor
combined with a crystalline
material that is sensitive to
mechanical stress in the form
of pressure. This type of
transducer produces an
electrical output proportional
to the pressure on the
diaphragm. No external power
is needed.
Practical Pressure
Measurement and
Calibration
METHODS OF PRESSURE
MEASUREMENT
1.Height of liquid with known density.
2.Mechanical deformation of sensing element.
3.Electrical and electronic method of sensing
pressure.
To read a meniscus accurately, observe the shape of the meniscus to determine whether it is
concave or convex. If the meniscus is concave, use the bottom of the meniscus as the reading,
while if the meniscus is convex, use the top of the meniscus as the reading. It is also important
to take into account other factors that may affect the shape of the meniscus, such as the
temperature and atmospheric pressure, and to make any necessary corrections to ensure the
accuracy of the measurement.
PRESSURE SWITCH COMPONENTS
1. Pressure Sensing Element
2. Switching Element
3. Transmission Mechanism

The term deadband in pressure switches is the physical

mechanical properties that dictate the difference between the
pressure at which the switch activates (the setpoint) and the
pressure at which the switch deactivates (the reset point).

The below graph shows the example above for a switch with
a particular diaphragm material/actuator and pressure range.
The deadband of the switch is 3 psi, so for a 60 psi increasing
setpoint, the pressure will have to drop to 57 psi in order to
reset.

https://blog.ashcroft.com/deadband-pressure-switch#:~:text=The
%20term%20deadband%20in%20pressure,deactivates%20(the
%20reset%20point).
SWITCH OPERATION AND DEADBAND
Pressure Measurement in Tanks
and Pressure Vessels
• Measuring the pressure of liquids stored in tanks
and pressure vessels can be difficult because the
liquid could damage the wetted materials of the
pressure-measuring device.
• Common methods of protecting pressure
instruments include the use of dry legs and
wet legs.
WET LEGS AND DRY LEGS
A dry leg is an impulse line filled with noncondensing gas, used
in level measurement applications. It compensates for pressure
on the liquid's surface and requires dry, non-corrosive process
vapors. A drain reservoir is typically included to prevent
condensation from causing measurement errors.
A wet leg is an impulse line filled with fluid that is compatible with the
pressure-measuring device. Care must be taken when installing a
differential pressure-sensing unit, especially if the pressurized fluid is a
gas. The gauge must be placed at the same elevation as the top level of the
liquid in the wet leg. A correction must be made if the gauge is placed
below the top of the liquid.
A seal pot is a surge tank that
may be installed in a wet leg to
prevent volume changes from
forcing the fluid into the process
as well as protecting the sensing
element from high temperatures
as with steam applications.
If two seal pots are used in the
wet legs of a differential pressure
measurement, the seal pots must
be at the same elevation.
 Figure 12-2.
If the steam
pressure is 6
psig measured
with a dry leg
above the
boiler, the
pressure at a
Hydrostatic pressure gauge located
differences must be taken into
10′ below the
account when measuring
pressure with a wet leg. liquid level of
the wet leg
reads 10.33
psig (6 + 4.33
= 10.33).
Manometer Measurements
Measurement compensation is required when
there is liquid condensation in a U-tube
manometer.
Manometers can also be used to measure the pressure
of liquids in pipelines. When this is done, the process
side of the manometer and the connecting piping or
tubing must be filled with the process fluid. This is done
so that a consistent liquid head is applied to the
manometer at all times.
Overpressure Protection
Pumps starting and stopping, valves opening and closing,
and vibrations in the pipes can cause pressure pulsations.
The response of pressure sensors is quite rapid and
pressure pulsations can cause overranging in a gauge.
Overranging is subjecting a mechanical sensor to
excessive pressure beyond the design limits of the
instrument. Pressure-limiting valves are available to
prevent overranging.
Snubbers (pulsation dampers) can be added to inlet lines to limit
pulsations and surges. Snubbers can take various forms such as a
porous filter, a ball check valve, or a variable orifice. Some
snubbers have a moving piston within the body of the device that
also cleans out any scale and sediment.
Overtemperature Protection
High process temperatures can damage a pressure sensor. Adding
enough inlet tubing to allow the process fluid to cool before entering
the sensor may widen the useful temperature range of pressure
sensors.
For example, boiler steam pressure gauges are equipped with a
siphon. A siphon forms a water seal, or trap, between the
sensor and the process, thus preventing high-temperature
steam from entering the gauge. As steam enters the piping to the
gauge, it begins to condense in the lower part of the siphon, keeping
the high-temperature steam from entering the gauge while allowing
pressure to be transmitted normally.
Deadweight Testers
A deadweight tester is a hydraulic pressure-
calibrating device that includes a manually
operated screw press, a weight platform
supported by a piston, a set of weights, and
a fitting to connect the tester to a gauge.
A deadweight tester is another application
of Pascal’s law.
DIRECT
METHO
D

PRESSURE is defined as force per unit area and could be measured directly
by its ability to lift a weight against the force of gravity.
Pressure is created in the hydraulic system by
turning the screw press. The pressure acts on
the piston supporting the weights.
When the hydraulic pressure is
sufficient to begin to lift the weights
off the rest position, the pressure is
equal to the total of the weights
divided by the area of the piston.
The weight platform should be gently
rotated to overcome the break torque
of the piston. The pressurized fluid
from the deadweight tester is allowed
to enter the pressure gauge. By
changing the weights as needed, a
gauge can be calibrated over any
desired range. For example, if the
weights total 1 lb and the piston has
an area of 0.2 sq in., the pressure is
calculated as follows:
temperature (instruments)
temperature
• Degree or intensity of heat measured on a definite scale.
Temperature is an indirect measurement of the heat energy
contained in molecules. When molecules have a low level of
energy they are cold, and as energy increases they get warmer.
The energy is in the form of molecular movement or vibration of
the molecules. A thermometer is an instrument that is used to
indicate temperature. Many technologies are used to measure
temperature and they are also called thermometers.
Absolute zero
• Lowest temperature possible, where there is no molecular
movement and the energy is at a minimum. Absolute zero is a
theoretical state and cannot actually be reached. This condition
is the zero point for the absolute temperature scales. The four
common temperature scales are the Fahrenheit, Rankine,
Celsius, and Kelvin scales.
Heat transfer
• Movement of thermal energy from one place
to another. When objects are at the same
temperature, they are in thermal equilibrium.
Thermal equilibrium is the state where
objects are at the same temperature and
there is no heat transfer between them.
When two substances are at different
temperatures, there is heat transfer from the
substance at the higher temperature to the
substance at the lower temperature. The
transfer of heat stops when both substances
are in thermal equilibrium. Heat transfer
occurs by conduction, convection,and
radiation.
conduction
• Heat transfer that occurs when molecules in a
material are heated and the heat is passed
from molecule to molecule through the
material. For example, conduction occurs
when one end of a metal rod is heated in a
flame or when metals are welded. The
molecules are heated and move faster. The
faster-moving molecules transfer energy
through collisions from molecule to molecule
across the metal until they reach the opposite
end of the work piece. When heat is
transferred through conduction, there is no
flow of material.
convection
• Heat transfer by the movement of gas or liquid from one place to another caused by a
pressure difference. The two types of convection are natural convection and forced
convection.
• Natural convection is the unaided movement of a gas or liquid caused by a pressure
difference due to a difference in density within the gas or liquid. Heat is transferred by
currents that circulate between warm and cool regions in a fluid. For example, a flame heats
the boiler’s heating surface. The hot boiler surface heats the water. The water is heated so
quickly that conduction within the water cannot transfer the heat away fast enough. The
hot water is less dense and begins to rise to the surface and is replaced by cooler, denser
water that moves to the bottom near the heat.
convection
• Forced convection is the movement of a gas or liquid due to a pressure difference caused
by the mechanical action of a fan or pump. For example, warm air in a forced-air heating
system travels through the ducts because of the pressure difference created by the blower
fan. Once the air is in a room and mixed, natural sources of heating and cooling cause air in
parts of the room to cool down or warm up. This may be due to heat generated in a room,
air infiltration, or heat transfer through walls and windows. Cool air is denser than warm air
and natural convection moves the cooler, denser air to the floor and into the cool air return.
From there, forced convection moves the air back through the heating system.
radiation
• Heat transfer by electromagnetic waves
emitted by a higher-temperature object
and absorbed by a lower-temperature
object. All objects emit radiant energy. The
amount of emitted energy depends on the
temperature and nature of the surface of
the object. Radiant energy waves move
through air or space without producing
heat. Heat is only produced when the
radiant energy waves contact an object that
absorbs the energy waves. The energy is
transferred to the surface molecules of the
object, which are warmed by the energy
from the electromagnetic waves. When heat
is transferred by radiation, there is no flow
of material.
temperature (instruments)
LIQuid in-glass thermometers
• A thermal expansion thermometer
consisting of a sealed, narrow-bore glass
tube with a bulb at the bottom filled with a
liquid. Liquid-in glass thermometers are
commonly called glass-stem thermometers.
The volumetric expansion of liquids is
typically many times greater than that of
glass. Since the volume of the liquid changes
more than the change in the glass, the liquid
moves up or down in the tube with changes
in temperature. See Figure 5-2. Liquid-in
glass thermometers can typically be used for
temperatures from –112°F to 760°F.
INDUSTRIAL TYPE LIQUID-IN-GLASS
THERMOMETER

http://www.aashtoresource.org/university/newsletters/newsletters/2016/08/02/the-anatomy-of-a-liquid-
in-glass-thermometer
LIQUID-IN-GLASS THERMOMETER
• The bulb of the thermometer is the thin glass reservoir that
holds the liquid. The bulb is carefully designed to contain a
calculated volume of liquid, based upon the length and diameter
of the capillary (or stem), as well as the thermal expansion
coefficient of the liquid.
• The stem, or capillary, of a Liquid-in-glass thermometer is made of
annealed glass. The type of glass used is chosen based on the
temperature range of the device so as to minimize the effects of
expansion and contraction of the tube.
LIQUID-IN-GLASS THERMOMETER
• Auxiliary Scale - Some thermometers, but not all, are equipped
with an auxiliary scale, which is located well below the main scale
that is employed during normal use. Often times, this scale
contains an ice point reference that can be used for calibration
purposes if this temperature is not included within the range of
the main scale.
• Contraction Chamber - Occasionally, a Liquid-in-glass thermometer
will have a contraction chamber that is located just below the
main scale of the device.  The purpose of this chamber is to
shorten the total stem length needed to reach the main scale. 
LIQUID-IN-GLASS THERMOMETER
• Expansion Chamber - An expansion chamber is provided at
the end of Liquid-in-glass thermometers, and is used to prevent
the buildup of pressure if the temperature of the liquid rises past
the top of the scale. Again, the volume of this chamber is
carefully designed to contain a certain volume of liquid.
The right length for a thermowell largely depends on the diameter of
the pipe or tube. One rule of thumb is to insert a thermowell anywhere
from one-third to two-thirds of the way into the fluid stream. Other
guidelines recommend that the insertion length be 10 times the
thermowell tip diameter or a minimum of 2 inches (50mm) into the
process.

The goal is to balance the potential for mechanical failure and the
potential for sensing error.

On the one hand, the longer the insertion length, the greater the
chances that the thermowell will bend or suffer mechanical fatigue
due to the process media’s velocity.

On the other hand, the shorter the insertion length, the greater the
chances that users will see unreliable results due to poorer heat
transfer. In summary, there is not one perfect stem length for a
thermowell, but a goal of balancing outcomes.
Electrical temperature
(instruments)
THERMOCOUPLES
• An electrical thermometer
consisting of two dissimilar metal
wires joined at one end and a
voltmeter to measure the voltage
at the other end of the two
wires. See Figure 6-1. A
thermocouple junction is the
point where the two dissimilar
wires are joined. The hot
junction, or measuring junction,
is the joined end of the
thermocouple that is exposed to
the process where the
temperature measurement is
desired.
• When the hot junction is at a
different temperature than the
cold junction, a measurable
voltage is generated across the
cold junction. The cold junction,
or reference junction, is the end
of a thermocouple used to
provide a reference point.
Controlling or accurately
measuring the temperature at
the cold junction is essential for
accurate temperature
measurement with a
thermocouple.
Seebeck effect (one of operating principle-
thermocouple)
• The Seebeck effect is a thermoelectric
effect where continuous current is
generated in a circuit where the
junctions of two dissimilar conductive
materials are kept at different
temperatures. When the circuit is
opened at the cold junction, an
electrical potential difference (the
Seebeck voltage) exists across the two
dissimilar wires at that junction. The
voltage produced by exposing the
measuring junction to heat depends on
the composition of the two wires and
the temperature difference between
the hot junction and the cold junction.
See Figure 6-2.
Cold junction compensation

• Process of using automatic compensation to calculate

temperatures when the reference junction is not at
the ice point and is often achieved by measuring the
temperature of the cold junction with a thermistor.
The voltmeter junctions are wired to an isothermal.
Cold junction compensation measures the
temperature of the isothermal block and calculates
the equivalent reference voltage.
Cold junction compensation
Thermocouple structure
• The original and still commonly used method of
constructing a thermocouple consists of welding
the two thermocouple wires together and then
slipping ceramic beads down the open ends of the
wires. The ceramic beads provide separation of the
two thermocouple wires and electrical insulation
from the thermowell. The length of the
thermocouple wires is selected to match the length
of the thermowell and the associated additional
pieces. The open ends of the wires terminate at a
special insulated termination block. Each wire is
screw-clamped to a block made of the same
materials as the wire. The thermocouple assembly
is designed to slip into the thermowell with the
terminal block fastened into the thermocouple
head, pressing the welded tip against the bottom
of the thermowell
 RESISTANCE
TEMPERATURE
DETECTORS (RTDs)
Resistance temperature detector
• An electrical thermometer consisting of a high-precision
resistor with resistance that varies with temperature, a
voltage or current source, and a measuring circuit. RTDs are
accurate and reliable temperature sensors especially for low
temperatures and small ranges. They are generally more
expensive than thermocouples and are not used for high
temperatures or corrosive measuring environments.
Thermocouples are often used in situations where the use of
an RTD is not appropriate because of high temperatures or a
corrosive measuring environment. The combination of the two
temperature measuring devices allows accurate measurement
of temperature over a very broad range.
Resistance construction
• The heat-sensitive element of a wound RTD
consists of a carefully made electrical resistor
manufactured in the form of a bulb. Platinum,
nickel, or copper wire wrapped around an
insulator is most often used for the resistance
wire of the element. The bulb consists of a fine
resistance wire wrapped around an insulator
and enclosed in glass. The most common form
for anRTD is very similar to a sheathed
thermocouple with an outside diameter of ¹⁄₄″
so that it can fit into standard thermowells.
Resistance construction
• Platinum wire is the best material for an RTD because it is useful over a
wide temperature range from –400°F to 1200°F. Nickel is frequently used
because it is economical and, over its useful range of –250°F to 600°F, its
resistance per degree of temperature change is greater than that of
platinum. Copper is generally restricted to temperatures below that of
nickel. The useful range of a copper RTD is –325°F to 250°F.
• Every RTD made from the same material should be interchangeable without
requiring recalibration of the instrument being used. For this reason, RTDs
are manufactured to have a fixed resistance at a certain temperature.
Platinum RTDs generally have a resistance of 100 Ω at 32°F (0°C). There
are two different alpha (α) curve numbers for platinum RTDs, 0.00385 and
0.00392. The α curve number is the change in resistance in ohms per °C.
Some nickel RTDs have a resistance of 120 Ω at 0°C and an α number of
0.00672 Ω per °C. There may be other nickel RTDs based on other
conditions.
thermistors
Definition of thermistor
• A temperature-sensitive resistor consisting of solid-state
semiconductors made from sintered metal oxides and lead
wires, hermetically sealed in glass. They are available in several
shapes such as rods, disks, beads, washers, and flakes.The
electrical resistance of most thermistors decreases with an
increase in temperature. Therefore, most thermistors have a
negative temperature coefficient (NTC). However, there are
some applications where a PTC (Positive temperature
coefficient) thermistor is used. PTC thermistors are made from
strontium and barium titanate mixtures.
advantage of thermistor
• Thermistors have much higher resistance than RTDs.
Thermistors are typically available with resistances ranging from
100 Ω to 100 MΩ. Therefore, lead wire resistance is not a
concern and two-wire devices are adequate. Thermistors can
typically be used over a temperature measurement range of –
22°F to 212°F. However, prolonged exposure to elevated
temperatures, even below the maximum limit specified by the
manufacturer, can cause permanent damage. A typical
application uses a thermistor for only a fraction of that range.
Application of thermistor (self heat)
• A thermistor can be used in a self-heat application where the
rate of heat loss is the variable of interest. When a thermistor is
heated by increasing the current, the rate of heat loss to the
environment depends on the environment in which the
thermistor is being used. For example, a thermistor submerged in
water dissipates much more heat than a thermistor in air. This
can be used as a level switch that alarms when a liquid level
reaches a predetermined point. A thermistor can also be used to
measure the flow rate of fluids by measuring the heat loss to the
flowing medium. The rate of heat loss depends on the velocity of
the fluid past the thermistor.
Thermowell (diameter factor)
• A simple process can often be
described as a first order system. For a
first order system, a time constant can
be used to develop a model that
describes the process. A time constant
is the time required for a process to
change by 63.2% of its total change
when an input to the process is
changed. For example, the time
constant of a thermometer is the time
required for the thermometer to
change by 63.2% of the total change
when the process temperature
changes or when the thermometer is
inserted into the process.
thermowell
• In most cases, temperature instruments cannot be used without
protection from the environment in which they are used. A
thermowell is a closed tube used to protect a temperature
instrument from process conditions and to allow instrument
maintenance to be performed without draining the process fluid.
Thermowells are also called thermocouple wells, sheaths, and
protecting tubes. Even if the measuring environment is not
harmful to the sensing element, a thermowell provides the
ability to remove the sensing element for servicing and
calibration without having to shut down the process and drain a
pipeline or reactor.
Thermowell (installation)
• Bar stock thermowells are machined from
solid bars of the selected material. The only
welding needed is the attachment of a
flange if one is used. The insertion portion
of the thermowell can be machined in
three different shapes: straight, tapered,
and stepped. Straight thermowells have the
same diameter over the whole insertion
length. Straight thermowells are used for
low-pressure and low-stress installations
because the straight shape cannot resist
the forces applied by a flowing stream as
well as the other styles.
Thermowell (installation)
• Tapered thermowells start with a large
diameter at the process connection and
have an even taper down to the tip.
Tapered thermowells are used for high-
pressure and high-stress applications
because the wider base of the thermowell
helps the thermowell resist the stresses of
flowing fluids. The most common
thermowell is the stepped form, which has
a larger insertion diameter over most of the
length but steps down in diameter over the
temperature sensing end.
Thermowell installation
• To ensure that the thermowell has the best chance of accurately
sensing the process temperature, the sensitive portion of the
insertion length must be in the actively flowing stream. It is
difficult to insert a thermowell into the side of pipes smaller than
4″. It is far better to install thermowells into pipe elbows. This
allows a longer insertion length to be used. The tip of the
thermowell should face into the flowing stream. Thermowell
installations in smaller pipes can cause a serious restriction of
flow. In those cases, the piping is increased in size around the
thermowell to ensure there is sufficient free space for the flow to
get around the thermowell.
Thermowell installation
Thermowell vibration
• On rare occasions, consideration must be given to resonance and
vortex shedding when a thermowell is inserted into moving fluid.
When an object is inserted into a flowing liquid or gas stream,
turbulent wakes are generated as vortices break away from the
object. The frequency of the wakes depends on the geometry of
the object and the velocity of the fluid flow. The thermowell has
its own natural vibration frequency based on the insertion depth
and the mass and stiffness of the thermowell. The thermowell
must be designed so that the two frequencies do not match and
cause resonance that can break the thermowell. This is usually a
concern only when the fluid velocity is very high. Information on
this topic can be obtained from the thermowell manufacturer.
Practical rtd measurement
• A resistance bridge is a circuit used
to precisely measure an unknown
resistance and consists of the
unknown electrical resistance,
several known resistances, and a
voltage meter. A Wheatstone
bridge, with variations, is often
used as the resistance bridge.
Resistance bridges are often used
to measure the resistance of RTDs
or thermistors as they change with
temperature.
Two-wire rtd bridge
• A difficulty with a Wheatstone
bridge as shown is that the leads
to the RTD in a 2-wire circuit
have resistance of their own that
is not accounted for in the
circuit. This can add significant
error to the measurement. For
example, a typical 100′ lead wire
can add 1 Ω to 5 Ω to the circuit,
depending on the wire. The RTD
itself may only have 100 Ω at
32°F. A solution to this source of
error is to use a 3-wire RTD
circuit.
Two-wire rtd bridge
• A balanced resistance bridge is a resistance bridge with the
resistances adjusted so there is equal current flow through the
legs of the bridge and zero potential across the bridge. The
fixed resistors R1 and R2 are matched to each other to have
the same resistance. The variable resistor R3 is adjusted to
match the resistance of the RTD in order to balance the
bridge. The resistance of the variable resistor is proportional
to the temperature. An unbalanced resistance bridge is a
resistance bridge with fixed resistances and the voltage across
the bridge is proportional to the temperature of the RTD.
When the temperature of the RTD changes, the
resistance changes and the bridge is no longer
balanced. The voltmeter now registers a potential
across the bridge. The variable resistor is adjusted to
balance the circuit again. The change in resistance is
proportional to the change in temperature.
Three-wire rtd bridge
A 3-wire RTD modifies the
Wheatstone bridge circuit by adding
another lead wire from the RTD. The
extra wire is used to compensate for
the resistance of the lead wires. The
RTD leads are matched so that they
are all of equal resistance. The
resistance of the leads L1 and L2 are
in separate legs of the circuit and
their effect balances out. When the
bridge is balanced, there is no current
flow through L3 and across the
bridge, and the potential at the
voltmeter is zero.
four-wire rtd bridge
In addition to 2-wire and 3-wire
RTDs, 4-wire RTDs are also
available. In a 4-wire RTD, the
sensing RTD takes the place of two
resistors in the Wheatstone bridge.
The voltage that normally
connects to the top and bottom of
the bridge is carried directly to the
sensing RTD. Therefore, no current
is routed through the RTD sensing
wires. There is no need to
compensate for wire resistance as
with the 3-wire RTD circuit.