Introduction to Nuclear Physics

Universidad Pedagógica y Tecnológica de Colombia - 2023

 About Units
 Energy - electron-volt
 electron-volt = kinetic energy of an electron when moving
through potential difference of 1 Volt;
o 1 eV = 1.6 × 10-19 Joules
o 1 kW•hr = 3.6 × 106 Joules = 2.25 × 1025 eV
o 1 MeV = 106 eV, 1 GeV= 109 eV, 1 TeV = 1012 eV

 mass - eV/c2
o 1 eV/c2 = 1.78 × 10-36 kg
o electron mass = 0.511 MeV/c2
o proton mass = 938 MeV/c2 = 0.938 GeV/ c2
o neutron mass = 939.6 MeV/c2

 momentum - eV/c:
o 1 eV/c = 5.3 × 10-28 kg m/s
o momentum of baseball at 80 mi/hr  5.29 kgm/s  9.9 × 1027 eV/c
 Distance
o 1 femtometer (“Fermi”) = 10-15 m
Fundamental Interactions
 Structure of nucleus
 size (Rutherford 1910, Hofstadter 1950s):
 R = r0 A1/3, r0 = 1.2 x 10-15 m = 1.2 fm;
 i.e. ≈ 0.15 nucleons / fm3
 generally spherical shape, almost uniform density;
 made up of protons and neutrons
 protons and neutron -- “nucleons”; are fermions (spin ½), have
magnetic moment
 nucleons confined to small region (“potential well”)
  occupy discrete energy levels
 two distinct (but similar) sets of energy levels, one for protons,
one for neutrons
 proton energy levels slightly higher than those of neutrons
(electrostatic repulsion)
 spin ½  Pauli principle  only two identical nucleons per eng.
level
 Nuclear Sizes - examples
1

r  ro (A ) 3
ro = 1.2 x 10-15 m

Find the ratio of the radii for the following nuclei:

1
H, 12C, 56Fe, 208
Pb, U
238

1 1 1 1 1
1 : 12 : 56 : 208 : 238
3 3 3 3 3

1 : 2.89 : 3.83 : 5.92 : 6.20

 Properties of Nucleons
 Proton

 Charge = 1 elementary charge e = 1.602 x 10-19 C

 Mass = 1.673 x 10-27 kg = 938.27 MeV/c2 =1.007825 u = 1836 me
 spin ½, magnetic moment 2.79 eħ/2mp
 Neutron

 Charge = 0
 Mass = 1.675 x 10-27 kg = 939.6 MeV/c2 = 1.008665 u = 1839 me
 spin ½, magnetic moment -1.9 eħ/2mn
 Introduction
Nucleus is quantum system of many nucleons interacting mainly by strong nuclear interaction.
Theory of atomic nuclei must describe:
1) Structure of nucleus (distribution and properties of nuclear levels)
2) Mechanism of nuclear reactions (dynamical properties of nuclei)
Development of theory of nucleus needs overcome of three main problems:

1) We do not know accurate form of forces acting between nucleons at nucleus.

2) Equations describing motion of nucleons at nucleus are very complicated – problem
of mathematical description.
3) Nucleus has at the same time so many nucleons (description of motion of every its particle is not
possible) and so little (statistical description as macroscopic continuous matter is not possible).

Real theory of atomic nuclei is missing  only models exist.

Models replace nucleus by model reduced physical system.  reliable and sufficiently
simple description of some properties of nuclei.
 Models of atomic nuclei can be divided:

A) According to magnitude of nucleon interaction:

Collective models (models with strong coupling) – description of properties of nucleus given by
collective motion of nucleons

Single particle models (models of independent particles) – describe properties of nucleus given by
individual nucleon motion in potential field created by all nucleons at nucleus.

Unified (collective) models – collective and singleparticle properties of nuclei together are reflected.

B) According to, how they describe interaction between nucleons:

Phenomenological models – mean potential of nucleus is used, its parameters are determined
from experiment.

Microscopic models – proceed from nucleon potential (phenomenological or

microscopic) and calculate interaction between nucleons at nucleus.

Semimicroscopic models – interaction between nucleons is separated to two parts: mean potential
of nucleus and residual nucleon interaction.
 The nucleus : a complex system
I) Some features about the nucleus
discovery
radius, shape
binding energy
nucleon-nucleon interaction
stability and life time
nuclear reactions
Nuclear fission
applications

II) Modeling of the nucleus

liquid drop
shell model
mean field
III) Examples of recent studies
figures of merit of mean field approaches
exotic nuclei
isomers
shape coexistence

IV) Toward a microscopic description of the fission process

 Modeling of the nucleus

Nucleus = A nucleons in interaction  2 challenges

Nuclear Interaction inside the nuclei (unknown)

N body formalism

The liquid drop model : global view of the nucleus associated to a quantum liquid.

The Shell Model : each nucleon is independent in a attractive potential.

« Microscopic » methods ~ Hartree-Fock , BCS , Hartree-Fock-Bogoliubov :

The nuclear structure is described within the assumption that each nucleon is
interacting with an average field generated by all the other nucleons.
 The liquid drop Model
The nucleus is a charged quantum liquid.

Quantum : The wave length of the nucleons is large enough with respect to the size of the
nucleons to vanish trajectory and position meaning.

Liquid : Inside the nucleus nucleons are like water molecules.

They roll “ones over ones” without going outside the “container”.

The nucleus and its features, radii, and binding energies have many
similarities with a liquid drop :

* The volume of a drop is proportional to its number of molecules.

* There are no long range correlations between molecules in a drop.

-> Each molecule is only sensitive to the neighboring molecules.

-> Description of the nucleus in term of a model of a charged liquid drop

 The liquid drop Model
Model developed by Von Weizsacker and N. Bohr (1937)

It has been first developed to describe the nuclear fission.

The model has been used to predict the main properties of the nuclei such as:
* nuclear radii,
* nuclear masses and binding energies,
* decay out,
* fission.
Equilibrium shape
spherical
Density
ρ0
Volume ≈ A
R= r0 A 1/3
r r
R R

The binding energy of the nuclei is described by the Bethe-Weiszaker formula

Binding energies (MeV) for some stable nuclei
 DEUTERON NUCLEUS

Its the most basic nucleus with an binding energy nucleon-

nucleon

Deuteron mass Md=1876.1244 MeV/c2

 Bethe and Weizsacker formula

B

aA
a
Aa
ZA2
/

a

3 N

Z
2

1
/3

a
A
1
/
3
2

v s c a p
A
Paring terms
+ even-even
- odd-odd
0 odd-even and even-odd
Binding term :
volume av
Unbinding terms :
(A)
Surface as ,
Coulomb ac ,
Asymmetry aa
Bethe and Weizsacker formula
BINDING ENERGY PER NUCLEON
 Problems with the liquid drop model
1) Fission fragment distributions
A heavy and
Liquid drop : only symmetric fission a light fragments
= asymmetric fission
Proton number

Neutron number

Experimental Results :
Two identical fragments K-H Schmidt et al., Nucl. Phys. A665 (2000) 221
= symmetric fission

18
 Problems with the liquid drop model

2) Nuclear radii

Evolution of mean square radii with

respect to 198Hg as a function of
neutron number.

Light isotopes are unstable nuclei produced

at CERN by use of the ISOLDE apparatus.

-> some nuclei away from the A2/3 law

Fig. from
http://ipnweb.in2p3.fr/recherche

14
 Problems with the liquid drop model
Halo nuclei

I. Tanihata et al., PRL 55 (1985) 2676

I. Tanihata and R. Kanungo, CR Physique (2003) 437

15
3) Nuclear masses
Difference in MeV between experimental masses and masses calculated with
the liquid drop formula as a function of the neutron number
E (MeV)

Nuclear
shell effects

Neutron number
Existence of magic numbers : 8, 20 , 28, 50, 82, 126
Fig. from L. Valentin, Physique subatomique, Hermann 1982

16
 Two neutron separation energy S2n

S2n : energy needed to

remove 2 neutrons
to a given nucleus (N,Z)
S2n=B(N,Z)-B(N-2,Z)

For most nuclei, the 2n separation energies are smooth functions of particle numbers
apart from discontinuities for magic nuclei
Magic nuclei have increased particle stability and require a larger energy to extract
particles.

17
 The nucleus is not a liquid drop :
Shell effects
There are many « structure effects » in nuclei, that can not be
reproduced by macroscopic approaches like the liquid drop model .
There are «magic numbers» 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126

and so «magic» 9 01 4 0
4Zr
0
550Ce
8
8 .2
..
...
40 208 100
and «doubly magic» nuclei Ca
2020Pb
...
Sn
82126 ...
5050

-> need for microscopic approaches, for which the fundamental

ingredients are the nucleons and the interaction between them

19
 Microscopic description of the atomic nucleus
Nucleus = N nucleons in strong interaction

The many-body problem

(the behavior of each nucleon Nucleon-Nucleon force
influences the others) unknown

Can be solved exactly for N < 4

For N >> 10 : approximations Different effective forces used

Depending on the method chosen
to solve the many-body problem

Shell Model Approaches based on the Mean Field

only a small number of • no inert core
particles are active • but not all the correlations between particles are taken
into account

20
 Quant
um me
chanic
s
Nucleons are quantum objects :
Only some values of the energy are available :
a discrete number of states

Nucleons are fermions :

Two nucleons can not occupy the same  
 
quantum state : the Pauli principle    
 

Neutrons Protons

21
 Shell Model
Model developed by M. Goeppert Mayer in 1948 :
The shell model of the nucleus describes the nucleons in the nucleus
in the same way as electrons in the atom.

neutron

neutron

proton

“In analogy with atomic structure one may

postulate that in the nucleus the nucleons move proton
fairly independently in individual orbits in an neutron

average potential …” ,
M. Goeppert Mayer, Nobel Conference 1963. neutron neutron
 Shell Model
Energy (MeV)

U (r ) R r (fm)
0
Schrödinger equation

Wave function φ and energy ε for each nucleon

Wave function ψ and nuclear binding energy E

R
Features of the nucleus in his ground state and r
his excited ones
 Shell Model : potential

Nuclear potential deduced from exp :

Wood Saxon potential
V
V r   0

rR
1
 ex
p 
 a 
or
square well
or
harmonic oscillator
 Shell Model : potential

spin orbit effect


S.O.  l .s
 Shell Model : how describe the ground state ?
-3d5/2
-2g9/2
Neon
-1i13/2
-3p1/2 126
-3p3/2
-2f5/2
-2f7/2
-1h9/2 Ex: Z=10 Ex: N=20
-1h11/2
+3s1/2
+1d3/2
82 +1d3/2
+2s1/2 20
+1d5/2
+2d5/2
+1g7/2
-1p1/2
-1p3/2 8 -1p1/2
-1p3/2 8
+1g9/2
-1p1/2
50 +1s1/2
2 +1s1/2 2
-1f5/2
-2p3/2
-1f7/2
28
+1d3/2
+2s1/2
20
+1d5/2

-1p1/2
-1p3/2
8
+1s1/2 2

For a nucleus with A nucleons you fill the A lowest energy levels, and
the energy is the sum of the energy of the individual levels
 Shell Model : how describe excited states ?
Ex: Z=10 Ex: N=20
-1f7/2
+1d3/2
+2s1/2 20
+1d5/2
Ground state
-1p1/2
-1p3/2 8 -1p1/2
-1p3/2 8
+1s1/2
2 +1s1/2 2

Ex: Z=10 Ex: N=20 Excited state :

-1f7/2
you make a particle-hole excitation.
+1d3/2
+2s1/2
+1d5/2
20 You promote one particle to a higher
-1p1/2
8 energy level
-1p3/2 -1p1/2
-1p3/2 8
+1s1/2
2 +1s1/2 2
 Shell model

Evidence:

1) End of radioactive series:

thorium series 208Pb
uranium series 206Pb
actinium series 207Pb
neptunium series 209Bi
2) At Z and N numbers there are relatively large
numbers of isotopes and isotones.
Shell model
 Beyond this “independent particle Shell Model
Satisfying results for magic nuclei :
ground state and low lying excited states

Problems :

• Neglect of collective excitations

• Same potential for all the nucleons and for all the configurations
• Independent particles

• Improved shell model (currently used):

The particles are not independent : due to their interactions with the other particles they
do not occupy a given orbital but a sum of
configurations having a different probability.
-> definition of a valence space where the particles are active

26
Beyond this “independent particle Shell Model

proton neutron

26
 The Fermi-gas model
Nucleons are fermions (have spin 1/2). Because of Pauli exclusion principle only one fermion can be
in one state. States characterized by strictly given discrete values of energy and momentum exist at
potential of nucleus. In the ground state all the lowest states allowed by Pauli principle are filled by
nucleons. Such system of fermions is named as degenerated fermion gas → nucleons can not change
their state (all near states are filled) → they can not collide and behave as noninteracting
independent particles.
System of N fermions in volume V and with temperature T:
Probability of fermion occurrence in state with energy E:
1
F(E)  EE 
F
 
 kT
1e
where k is Boltzman constant and EF – Fermi energy. We determine
Fermi momentum pF ( nonrelativistic approximation EF = pF2/2m ):
We introduce phase space:
extension of coordinate space by momentum space (6 – dimensional space). Space element is:
dV = dx·dy·dz → dV = d3r = r2sindr·d·d
dV = 4π r2 dr
If angular direction is not important, we integrate through all angles:
Analogously for momentum space element: dVp = d3p = dpxdpydpz = 4π p2 dp
Phase space element: dVTOT = dV·dVp

From Heisenberg uncertainty principle: ΔpxΔx ≥ ħ ΔpyΔy ≥ ħ ΔpzΔz ≥ ħ

Volume dVTOT of elementary cell in phase space is h3. number d of elementary V p
4 2
dp

d 3
cells with one particle with momentum p  p+Δp is for volume V: h

Nucleons have s = 1/2  in every cell gs = (2s+1) = 2. For T = 0:

p
V
F
4
p2p


F
8
Vp3
 
N

g
0
d
s 

0
23 d
h
p3
3h
F

p < pF  2 particles in cell p > pF  0 particles in cell.

23

3N
13
  
32 1
N
3
 E 
2
p
F

2



32
N 

ph 
  V 
and then: F    F

8
V  V


2m2m
 

Fermi gas is degenerated for EF >> kT. For EF << kT → classical gas and Maxwell distribution.

Nucleus is mixture of two degenerated fermion gases:

Z protons and N neutrons closed in volume V = (4/3)R3 = (4/3)r03A. Fermi energy for
neutrons and protons at nucleus: 2

3 2 2
N 
3
2
32 2
Z 
3

E
F  
(n)  
 E
F  
(p)  

2mn V 2mp V

in first approximation: mn  mp = m, Z  N  A/2: E

(n)
FE
(p)
FE

F
2
9

37
MeV
2
3

2
2m
08
 r
Deepness of potential well (binding of last nucleon is B/A):
V0  EF + B/A  37 MeV + 8 MeV  45 MeV

Further we calculate whole kinetic energy: E

KI 
(N)
 E
N 
KI
,N
p 
N

2

V
43
2
p

d
NE
p
(n)
F
p
(N)
F 2

 
1 0
2 
3
m
h 5
A
3
Hence for A = Z+N nucleons: E (A)
KIN 
E 
KIN
, NE
(n
F ZE
F(
p
) )

1 5
3 3
E ( A)
 AE/A/
 A
E 2 2 Me V
Average kinetic energy per A (for Z A): KIN
5
F
5
F
 Mean field approach
Main assumption
each particle is interacting with an average field generated by all the other particles :
the mean field.
The mean field is built from the individual excitations between the nucleons.

Nuclear interaction
2 nucleons bare force
many nucleons  effective interaction
Neptune
FG Feffective

Soleil Flibre

Uranus

Self consistent mean field : the mean field is not fixed. It depends on the configuration.
No inert core
 Jacques Dechargé
Jacques
Dechargé
 The phenomenological
effective finite-range Gogny force
P : isospin exchange operator
P : spin exchange operator
2 r 1-r
2
 Finite range

v1 2 ex- p 2
W jBjP -HjP
 -M jPP 
central term
 pj 
j1
 
   
t31x P
0 sr1 r2 r1r2 Density dependent term
     
iW 
ls 2r
1. 1 r2 1.12 Spin orbit term
2

e2
12
t1z12
t2z   Coulomb term
r
1 r2

Finite range for pairing treatment

 Mean field approach : Hatree-Fock method

2 
Hartree-Fock equations 
2M
2
 
U (

HF)
i(
x)
i (
iix)
i  

 
(A set of coupled Schrodinger equations)

For more formalism see

“The nuclear many body problem”,
P. Ring and P. Schuck
Single particle wave functions
Hartree-Fock potential

Self consistent mean field :

the Hartree Fock potential depends on the solutions
(the single particle wave functions)

-> Resolution by iteration

Resolution of the Hatree-Fock equations
Trial single particle wave function i ( xi )

Effective interaction

Calculation of the HF
potential
UHF)
(

2 

2M
2
Resolution of the HF equations  
U (

HF)
i(
x)
i (
iix)
i  

 

New wave functions i ( xi )

Test of the convergence

Jacques Dechargé
Calculations of the properties of the nucleus in its ground state
 Hatree-Fock method : deformation

We can “measure” nuclear deformations as the mean values of the

mutipole operators Q̂

ˆ
Q
q


Spherical Harmonic

If we consider the isoscalar axial quadrupole operator ˆ20 r2Y

Q 20

We find that:
http://www-phynu.cea.fr
Most of the nuclei are deformed in their ground state

Magic nuclei are spherical

34
 Constraints Hatree-Fock-bogoliubov calculations

We can impose collective deformations and test the response of the nuclei:


ˆ
H

ˆ
Q
ˆ
N

Z
q

i
ˆ
 
0
i
iiNZq

i

with

q

ˆ
N
(ˆ
Z
)  
q N(Z)
i i


q

ˆ
Q
i  
q qi
i i

Where ’s are Lagrange parameters.

36
Constraints Hatree-Fock-bogoliubov calculations :
results

g.s deformation predicted

with HFB using the Gogny
force

http://www-phynu.cea.fr

35
Constraints Hatree-Fock-bogoliubov calculations :
What are the most commonly used constraints ?

What are the problems

with this deformation ?

38
Constraints Hatree-Fock-bogoliubov calculations :
Potential energy landscapes

Deformations pertinent for fission:

Elongation
Asymmetry
…

39
Evolution of s.p. states with deformation

Sm
154

New gaps
 Hatree-Fock-bogoliubov calculations with blocking
Particle-hole excitations  one (or two, three, ..) quasi-particles curves
 Beyond mean field …

Introduction of more correlations : two types of approaches

Random Phase Approximation (RPA) Generator coordinate Method (GCM)

Coupling between HFB ground state Introduction of large amplitude

and particle hole excitations correlations

Give access to
a correlated ground state and to the excited states
Individual excitations and collective states

42
Beyond mean field … with GCM

(GCM+GOA 2 vibr. + 3 rot.)

= 5 Dimension Collective Hamiltonian
5DCH
 Beyond mean field … with RPA

Monopole Dipole

S. Péru, J.F. Berger, and P.F. Bortignon, Eur. Phys. Jour. A 26, 25-32 (2005)
 The nuclear shape : spectrum ?

Spherical nuclei «vibrational» spectrum

6 +

4+ 
EJ
2+

0+

Deformed nuclei «rotational» spectrum

6+

4+
2+

EJ
(
J+1
)
0+

44
Octupole vibrations of nucleus.
(taken from H-J. Wolesheima,
GSI Darmstadt)
 Angular velocity of a rotating nucleus

For a rotating nucleus, the energy of a level is given by* :

With J the moment of inertia

We also have so

With

To compare with a wash machine: 1300 tpm

* Mécanique quantique by C. Cohen-Tannoudji, B. Diu, F. Laloe

47
 Modeling the nuclei:
Summary
• Macroscopic description of a nucleus : the liquid drop model

• Microscopic description needed:

the basic ingredients are the nucleons
and the interaction between them.

• Different microscopic approaches : the shell model, the mean field and beyond

• Many nuclei are found deformed in their ground states

• The spectroscopy strongly depends on the deformation

48