BIOMOLECULES

Carbohydrates, lipids, protein and nucleic acid

GROUP 2
 OBJECTIVES
BIOMOLECULES

• Identify the major categories of Biomolecules

• Distinguish between the structure and
functions of carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic
acids, and lipids
• Cite the importance of biomolecules in our
life.

2
 BIOMOLECULE
BIOMOLECULES

Biomolecule, also called biological

macromolecule, any of numerous
substances that are produced by cells
and living organisms. Biomolecules
are the building blocks of life and
perform important functions in
living organisms.
3
 THE FOUR MAJOR TYPES OF
BIOMOLECULE ARE:

Fats, Oils, and RNA and Sugars and Structural Materials,

Steroids DNA Starches Enzymes, and
4 Antibodies
 BIOMOLECULE
BIOMOLECULES

EACH OF THE MAJOR TYPES

OF BIOMOLECULE IS AN
IMPORTANT COMPONENT OF
THE CELL AND PERFORMS A
WIDE ARRAY OF FUNCTIONS.
COMBINED, THESE
5 MOLECULES MAKE UP THE
MAJORITY OF A CELL'S MASS.
 MONOMERS AND
POLYMERS
MONOMERS ARE THE SMALL UNITS
WHICH CAN CREATE LARGER
MOLECULE.
POLYMERS ARE MOLECULES MADE
FROM A LARGE NUMBER OF
MONOMERS JOINED TOGETHER
 MONOMERS AND POLYMERS
BIOMOLECULES

 The smallest functioning unit of a

biomolecule is a MONOMER.

 Put two monomers together, and you get a

DIMER.

 Once several monomers are put together, we

7 get a POLYMER
 BIOMOLECULES

INORGANIC ORGANIC
MINERALS CARBOHYDRATES
WATER LIPIDS
AMINO ACIDS
GASES
PROTEIN
ENZYMES
NUCLEOTIDES
NUCLEIC ACIDS
8
VITAMINS
 BIOMOLECULES

MICROMOLECU MACROMOLECUL
LESMINERALS ES
WATER CARBOHYDRATES
GASES LIPIDS
AMINO ACIDS PROTEIN
NUCLEOTIDES NUCLEIC ACIDS
9
CARBOHYDRAT
ES
 CARBOHYDRATES
BIOMOLECULE

• Formally known as saccharides

• Carbohydrates are macronutrients and one of
the three main ways by which our body
obtains its energy.
• They serve as energy storage and as structural
framework in organisms.
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 CARBOHYDRATES
BIOMOLECULE

• Carbohydrates contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen,

they include simple sugars, starches, and cellulose.
• Carbohydrates may be polyhydroxy (with- OH)
aldehydes, polyhydroxy ketones, or compounds that
can be broken down into them
• The general empirical structure for carbohydrate is
(CH₂O)n.
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 CLASSIFICATION OF
CARBOHYDRATES

13
CARBOHYDRAT
ES
MONOSACCHARIDE
(GLUCOSE, GALACTOSE,
FRUCTOSE)
 CARBOHYDRATES
MONOSACCHARIDE
BIOMOLECULE

The monomer of carbohydrates is a monosaccharide

with the basic formula of a carbon, two hydrogen and
an oxygen molecule
The combination form of carbohydrates are
monosaccharides, also called simple sugars, are the
simplest forms of sugar and the most basic units from
which all carbohydrates are built.
15
 CARBOHYDRATES
MONOSACCHARIDE
BIOMOLECULE

The most common monosaccharides are glucose

(also called dextrose), fructose/levulose (or fruit
sugar), and galactose (sugar in milk). They are the
basic subunits of a carbohydrate. They have many
hydroxyl groups (-OH) in their molecular structure;
thus, they are polar and therefore very soluble in
water.

16
 CARBOHYDRATES
(GLUCOSE)
Glucose
(aldehyde)
They can exist as a chain or
ring. Glucose is a six-carbon
pentahydroxy (with 5 –OH
groups) aldehyde
Glucose is a monosaccharide
containing six carbon atoms
and an aldehyde group, and is
therefore an aldohexose.

Chain form Ring form

17
 CARBOHYDRATES
(GLUCOSE)
Glucose
(aldehyde)
Glucose exists as two
isomers: alpha and beta
Glucose has a chemical
formula of: C6H12O6 That
means glucose is made of 6
carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen
atoms and 6 oxygen atoms.

Chain form Ring form

18
 CARBOHYDRATES
(GALACTOSE) Galactose
(aldehyde
)
Galactose is a
monosaccharide sugar
whose chemical or
molecular formula is
C6H12O6. Glucose and
galactose are structural
isomers.

19 Chain form Ring form

 CARBOHYDRATES
(FRUCTOSE) Fructose
(ketone)
Fructose is a
ketohexose
monosaccharide with
the chemical formula:
C6H12O6

20
Chain form Ring
form
 CARBOHYDRATES
(FRUCTOSE) Fructose
(ketone)

is a simple ketonic monosaccharide

found in many plants, where glucose

is often bonded to form the sucrose

disaccharide. As well as glucose and

galactose, it is one of the three

dietary monosaccharides that are

21 absorbed directly into the blood Chain form Ring
form
during digestion.
 CARBOHYDRATES
All simple sugars are sources of energy. But glucose is the most
abundant monosaccharide used by organisms. During cellular
respiration, the glucose obtained from food are oxidized into
simpler forms that are made available for cell use.

Glucose and galactose as also known as stereoisomers they

have the same chemical formula their atoms are connected the
same way they have the same functional groups.

22
CARBOHYDRAT
ES
DISACCHARIDE
(MALTOSE, SUCROSE,
LACTOSE)
 CARBOHYDRATES
DISACCHARIDE

Two monosaccharide units can be combined through the process

called condensation reaction to produce a disaccharide molecule.
During such process, a glycosidic bond is formed between the two –
OH groups of the monosaccharide units. In a reverse process called
hydrolysis, the glycosidic bond is broken.
glucose fructose
sucrose
water
condensation
+
hydrolysis
+ H2O

24
glycosidic bond
 CARBOHYDRATES
DISACCHARIDE

TWO CHEMICAL KEY REACTION

Condensation reaction - Joining two molecules together by removing
water.
Hydrolysis reaction - Splitting apart molecules through the addition
of water.

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 CONDENSATION REACTION
Example:

26
 CONDENSATION REACTION

27
 CONDENSATION REACTION

28
 CONDENSATION REACTION

DISACCHARIDE
29 1-4 GLYCOSIDIC
BOND
 HYDROLYSIS REACTION

30
 HYDROLYSIS REACTION

31
 CARBOHYDRATES
DISACCHARIDE

The most common disaccharides are sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Sucrose, or
common table sugar, is a disaccharide of glucose and fructose. Lactose, the
sugar present in milk, forms from the condensation of glucose and galactose.
Maltose is made from two glucose units. Disaccharide molecules are also
sources of cell energy, but they must be hydrolyzed first into monosaccharide
units before they are used by the cells.

glucose + fructose sucrose + water

glucose + galactose lactose + water
glucose + glucose maltose + water
32
CARBOHYDRAT
ES
POLYSACCHARIDES
(GLYCOGEN, CELLULOSE,
STARCH)
 CARBOHYDRATES
P O LY S A C C H A R I D E

Polysaccharides consist of repeating monosaccharide units,

usually glucose. Among these complex sugar are starch,
glycogen, and cellulose, which serve as energy storage or as
cell framework.
This polysaccharide obtained from plants should be
hydrolyzed first into its glucose units before it can be used
as energy source.

34
 CARBOHYDRATES
( S TA R C H )
Starch is formed from two polymers of alpha glucose amylose (linear chain
polymer) and amylopectin (branched chain polymer).

35
 CARBOHYDRATES
( G LY C O G E N )
Glycogen is another polymer of alpha glucose stored energy source in the liver
and muscle cells of animal, including humans.

36
 CARBOHYDRATES
(CELLULOSE)
Cellulose is a long and unbranched chain of beta glucose units arranged in a
way that allows for extensive bonding within the polymer.
This makes the cellulose from the strong and long bundles of fibers in plant cell
wall.ir was also makes the compound hydrolysable by select organisms like
cows, which have cellulose- degrading microorganisms in their digestive tract.

37
 CARBOHYDRATES
(OLIGOSACCHARIDES)

Oligosaccharide is a carbohydrate polymers comprise three to ten

monosaccharides, or, simple sugars. They were linked together
mostly by O-glycosidic bond through condensation reaction between
an anomeric carbon of a monosaccharide and the other. They can
also form N-glycosidic linkages under certain atmosphere.

38
LIPIDS
 LIPIDS
• Lipids are macromolecules composed of several simpler
compound groups. They have mainly hydrogen and carbon
atoms and a few oxygen atoms that make them generally
nonpolar. As nonpolar compounds, they are soluble in
nonpolar solvents and insoluble in water.
• They help with moving and storing energy, absorbing vitamins
and making hormones.

40
 LIPIDS
• Lipids are fatty compounds that perform a variety
of functions in your body. They're part of your cell
membranes and help control what goes in and out of
your cells.
• There are 3 common types of lipids are
triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids.

41
 LIPIDS
T R I G LY C E R I D E S
 LIPIDS
T R I G LY C E R I D E S

Triglycerides, commonly termed fats, contain a glycerol

and three fatty acids, each bound by an ester linkage. These
compounds are the most abundant energy storage lipids in
organisms. They can supply more energy than
carbohydrates.

43
 LIPIDS
T R I G LY C E R I D E S

Fatty acids, which are carboxylic acids, may be described

as saturated or unsaturated. Saturated fatty acids contain
only single bonds. They tend to solidify at room
temperature . This explains why fats with more saturated
fatty acids are considered less healthful and are associated
with heart diseases. Unsaturated fatty acids contain double
bonds and tend to make fats liquid at room temperature

44
 LIPIDS
T R I G LY C E R I D E S
R Group = fatty acids
The R-group are fatty acids which can be saturated or unsaturated

45
 LIPIDS
T R I G LY C E R I D E S
Triglycerides are formed via the condensation between one molecule of
glycerol and three molecules of fatty acid.

46
 LIPIDS
T R I G LY C E R I D E S

Fats may be hydrolyzed using an acid or a base. The hydrolysis of

fats using an alkali metal hydroxide, such as sodium hydroxide or
potassium hydroxide, is known as saponification, a reaction that
produces soap.

47
 LIPIDS
PHOSPHOLIPIDS
 LIPIDS
PHOSPHOLIPIDS

macromolecules composed of a glycerol, a phosphate

group, two fatty acids, and an organic group like
choline are called phospholipids. The fatty acids from
the “tail” of a phospholipid molecule; the three other
components make up its “head”. The tail end is
hydrophobic (water-fearing, water-insoluble), and the
head is hydrophobic (water-loving, water-soluble).

49
 LIPIDS
PHOSPHOLIPIDS

Phospholipids are major membrane lipids that

consist of lipid bilayers. This basic cellular
structure acts as a barrier to protect the cell against
various environmental insults and more
importantly, enables multiple cellular processes to
occur in subcellular compartments.

50
 LIPIDS
PHOSPHOLIPIDS
Made of a glycerol molecule, two fatty acid, chains
and a phosphate group (attached to glycerol).

The two fatty acids also bond to the glycerol via two
condensation reactions, resulting in two ester bonds.

51
 LIPIDS
STEROID: CHOLESTEROL
 LIPIDS
STEROIDS

Steroids are compounds whose backbone contains three

six-carbon rings and one five-carbon ring. One of the
common types of steroids is cholesterol, which is a
structural component of animal cell membranes.

53
 LIPIDS
STEROIDS

Cholesterol is the most common steroid and is mainly

synthesized in the liver; it is the precursor to vitamin D.
Cholesterol is also a precursor to many important steroid
hormones like estrogen, testosterone, and progesterone,
which are secreted by the gonads and endocrine glands.

54
PROTEINS
 PROTEINS
• Formally known as Polypeptides
• Proteins are polymers of amino acids
• It is made up of the elements Carbon,
Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, (CHON) and
Sulfur in some
• Proteins function as:
Enzymes, Pigments and Steroid hormones
56
• Used for growth and repair
57
 PROTEINS
• proteins are polymers composed
of amino acid monomers.
Amino acid is an organic
compound that contains an
amino (-NH2) group and a
carboxyl (-COOH) group
bonded to a carbon atom called
alpha carbon.

58
 AMINO ACIDS
• Basic subunits of all proteins
• 20 main amino acids in living
organisms
• Amino acids together bond via
peptide bonds
• And form long polypeptide chains

59
60 Photo by Osmosis from Elsevier
 Exception
61 Photo by Osmosis from Elsevier
 Usually the structure of a typical amino acid looks like this

62
63

Photo by Osmosis from Elsevier

64

Photo by Osmosis from Elsevier

65

Photo by Osmosis from Elsevier

66

Photo by Osmosis from Elsevier

 PROTEINS
Protein are assembled into different forms, which allow them to serve specific function. Those
classified as enzymes catalyze certain chemical processes in the body.
Types
Typeof
of proteins
Protein and their functions:
Function Examples
Storage Storage of nutrients Casein in milk supplies essentials nutrients.
Transport Transport of substances Hemoglobin in blood transports oxygen.
between cells or across
cells
Structural Support and protection of Collagen gives connective tissues strength and
cells flexibility
Motile Movement Actin and myosis facilitate muscle contraction.
Enzymatic Catalysis of specific Glucosidase hastens digestion of large molecules
chemical reactions
Regulatory Coordination and control Insulin helps regulate blood sugar levels.
of physiological processes
Protective Defense against foreign Antibodies detect and attack pathogenic viruses
matter in the body and bacteria.
67
 PROTEINS
PRESENTATION TITLE

(PROTEIN STRUCTURES)
there are four protein structure and their functions
1. Primary structure - the primary structure of a protein is defined as the
sequence of amino acids linked together to form a polypeptide chain. Each
amino acid is linked to the next amino acid through peptide bonds created
during the protein biosynthesis process. The primary structure dictates all the
possible interactions of the amino acids that will form the secondary, tertiary,
and quaternary..

68
 PROTEINS
BIOMOLECULES

(PROTEIN STRUCTURES)
2. Secondary structure - Secondary structure refers to regular, local structure of
the protein backbone, stabilized by intramolecular and sometimes
intermolecular hydrogen bonding of amide groups. This indicates the shape of
the protein molecule as a result of hydrogen bonding between –C=O and –NH
groups (backbones of amino acids) within the chain.
There are two main secondary structures: alpha helix and beta-pleated sheet
1. An α-helix is a right-handed coil of amino-acid residues on a polypeptide
chain, typically ranging between 4 and 40 residues. This coil is held together by
hydrogen bonds between the oxygen of C=O. on top coil and the hydrogen of
N-H on the bottom coil.
2. It consists of various beta strands linked by hydrogen bonds between
69 adjacent strands. Three to ten amino acids are combined to create a beta-strand
polypeptide.
 PROTEINS
PRESENTATION TITLE

(PROTEIN STRUCTURES)

70
 PROTEINS
BIOMOLECULES

(PROTEIN STRUCTURES)
3. Tertiary structure – the interactions among the R groups cause the folding
and bending of the polypeptide chain. These interactions include the hydrogen
bonding between R groups, ionic bonding between a positive and a negative R
groups, disulfide bonding between two sulfur atoms, and the hydrophobic
interaction between nonpolar groups.

71
 PROTEINS
BIOMOLECULES

(PROTEIN STRUCTURES)
4. Quaternary structure – this is the resulting 3-D structure of the protein. It
results from the interactions among different polypeptide chains, forming either
fibrous, globular, or conjugated proteins. The quaternary structure of a protein
is the association of several protein chains or subunits into a closely packed
arrangement.

72
 PROTEINS STRUCTURES
BIOMOLECULES

73
 DENATURATION
PRESENTATION TITLE

A protein becomes denatured when its normal shape gets deformed

because some of the hydrogen bonds are broken. Weak hydrogen bonds
break when too much heat is applied or when they are exposed to an
acid (like citric acid from lemon juice).
When a protein is denatured, secondary and tertiary structures are
altered but the peptide bonds of the primary structure between the
amino acids are left intact. Since all structural levels of the protein
determine its function, the protein can no longer perform its function
once it has been denatured.

74
NUCLEIC ACID
 NUCLEIC ACID
PRESENTATION TITLE

• Nucleic acids are large biomolecules that play essential roles in all cells and
viruses.
• Nucleic acids are biopolymers, macromolecules, essential to all known forms
of life. They are composed of nucleotides, which are the monomers made of
three components: a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group and a nitrogenous
base. The two main classes of nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid and
ribonucleic acid.
• are biomolecules essential to the transmission of hereditary information and
to the manufacture of proteins in cells.
• The two kinds of nucleic acids in cells are ribonucleic acid (RNA) and
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). The RNA participates in the formation of
76 polypeptides, while the DNA constitutes the hereditary material.
• The building blocks of nucleic acids are nucleotides, which are composed of a
 NUCLEIC ACID
PRESENTATION TITLE

RI BO N U CL EI C A CI D ( RN A ) A N D D E O X Y RI B O N U CL EI C A CI D
(DNA).
The base found in DNA and RNA are heterocyclic amines, which may either be purine
or pyrimidine bases. Adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine constitute the DNA. The
first three bases (A, G, C) and uracil make up the RNA. The sugar component of RNA
is D- ribosome, while that of DNA is 2-deoxy-D-ribose. Each sugar group in a nucleic
acid is attached to a phosphate group through phosphodiester linkage
In DNA and RNA, the phosphodiester bond is the linkage between the 3' carbon
atom of one sugar molecule and the 5' carbon atom of another, deoxyribose in DNA and
ribose in RNA. Strong covalent bonds form between the phosphate group and two 5-
carbon ring carbohydrates (pentoses) over two ester bonds.
77
78
PRESENTATION TITLE

NUCLEIC ACID
 NUCLEIC ACID
PRESENTATION TITLE

pyrimidine purine bases

bases

79
sugars
 NUCLEIC ACID
PRESENTATION TITLE

80
Linear chain od Nucleotides in RNA
QUESTION?

GROUP 2
PRESENTATION TITLE

SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN

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TIMELINE
82
PRESENTATION TITLE
RO I
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83
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PRESENTATION TITLE

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COMING.”

84 RI CH A R D BRA N S O N
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GROUP 2