Pe Bio CH3

CHAPTER THREE
PULSE WIDTH
MODULATION AND
COMMUTATIONS
3/25/23 ECEg |Year V Semester I |Biomedical Engineering| Gashaye G. 1
3.1 Pulse Width Modulation
 One of the most widely utilized strategies for controlling the AC output of power electronic converters is
the technique known as pulse width modulation (PWM).
 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is a control technique used in power electronics converter to regulate
power supplied from power source to load.
 It turns a digital signal into an analog signal by changing the timing of how long it stays on and off.
 The ratio of ON time to the switching period time is the duty cycle.
 The term “duty cycle” is used to describe the percentage or ratio of how long it stays on compared to when
it turns off.
 Duty cycle is the output variable of PWM which carries information and encode the control function of
converter
3/25/23 ECEg |Year V Semester I |Biomedical Engineering | Gashaye G. 2
 To generate the PWM signal, the error amplifier accepts the feedback signal input and a stable voltage
reference to produce an output related to the difference of the two inputs.
 A pulse width modulating signal is generated using a comparator.
 The modulating signal forms one part of the input to the comparator, while the non-sinusoidal wave or saw
tooth wave forms the other part of the input.
 The comparator compares two signals and generates a PWM signal as its output waveform.
 The comparator compares the error amplifier’s output voltage with the ramp (saw tooth) from the oscillator,
producing a modulated pulse width.

 If the saw tooth signal is more than the modulating signal, then the output signal is in a “High” state.
 The value of the magnitude determines the comparator output which defines the width of the pulse
generated at the output.
 PWM is also obtained by comparing a reference signal, Ar (also called the modulating wave) with a
triangular carrier wave, Ac.
Generation of PWM
PWM technique: (a) low value of modulation index M, (b) moderate value of M, (c) high value of M.

 By varying Ar from 0 to Ac , the pulse width can be varied from 0° to 180°. Thus, the voltage and hence,
the amount of power sent to the load is controlled. The modulation index is defined as
 In power electronics, the modulating signal is produced by controlling the turn-on and turn-off of the
power semiconductor devices such as thyristors, BJTs, MOSFETs, GTOs, etc.
 The duty of the positive and negative pulses (rms value) depends upon switching period which is controlled
using PWM in the gate signals in the electronic switches.

 There are many types of PWM, however, the commonly used techniques for controlling output signal of a
single-phase inverter are:
1) Single-pulse width modulation
2) Multiple-pulse-width modulation
3) Sinusoidal pulse-width modulation
4) Modified sinusoidal pulse-width modulation
5) Phase displacement control

1) Single-pulse width modulation: The simplest form of pulse width modulation technique is the single
pulse width modulation. This type of modulation gives quasi – square wave output as shown below.
According to this figure one can
observe that, there is a single
pulse of output voltage during
each half-cycle and the width of
the pulse is varied to control the
output voltage.

2.3 Circuits and Characteristics of Switching Devices
2) Multiple-pulse-width modulation : An alternative waveform consisting m symmetrical spaced pulses per
half-cycle can be obtained by control the output voltage of the inverter such that it can be switched on and off
rapidly several times during each half-cycle to produce a train of constant magnitude pulses.
 The output voltage waveform consists
of p pulses for each half-cycle of the
required output voltage.
 Minimum pulse width is zero and
maximum pulse width will be π/p.

3) Sinusoidal Pulse-Width Modulation (SPWM) : Using sinusoidal reference signal will produce varied width
pulses that proportional to the amplitude of the sine wave as shown below.
 These widths of output signal is depend on
the modulation index M which controls the
output voltage of the inverter.

4) Modified Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (MSPWM) : Here the carrier signal is not symmetry triangle
wave. The carrier wave is generated so the widths of the pulses that are near to the peak of the sine wave not
change much when modulation index changed.

 Note that the triangular wave is present for
the period of first 60˚ of the half cycle of
sine wave.
 This technique reduces the number of
switching of power devices and also
reduces switching losses.

Objectives of PWM
 A primary objective of PWM can be identified which is to calculate the converter switch ON times which
create the desired (low-frequency) target output voltage or current.
 The secondary objective for a PWM strategy is to determine the most effective way of arranging the
switching processes to minimize unwanted harmonic distortion, switching losses, or any other specified
performance criterion.

3.2 Commutation
 Commutation is defined as the process of turning-off a thyristor.
 Once thyristor starts conducting, gate loses control over the device, therefore, external means may have to
be adopted to commutate the thyristor.
 Several commutation techniques have been developed with the sale objective of reducing their turn-off (or
commutation) time.
 The classification of commutation techniques is based on the manner in which anode current is reduced to
zero and on the configuration of the commutating circuits.
 Thyristor commutation techniques use resonant LC, or underdamped RLC circuits, to force the current and
or voltage of a thyristor to zero to turn off the device.

3.2 Commutation
 The types of commutation techniques
 Line or natural commutation
 Load commutation
 Forced Commutation
 External Pulse commutation

3.2 Commutation
3.2.1. Line (Class E) Commutation
 This type of commutation is also 'known as natural commutation. This can occur only when the source is ac.
 When an SCR circuit is energized from ac source, current has to pass through its natural zero at the end of
every ·positive half cycle.
 This method of commutation is applied to phase-controlled converters, line-commutated inverters, ac voltage
controllers and step-down cyclo-converters.
m s
fo r
ve
Wa
Circuit diagram

3.2 Commutation
3.2.2. Load (Class A) Commutation
 For achieving load commutation of a thyristor, the commutating components L and C are connected.
 For low value of load resistance R, L and C are connected in series with load resistance.
 For high value of load R, the load resistance (R) is connected parallel with C.
 The essential requirement for both the circuits, the overall circuit must be underdamped.
Series capacitance Circuit diagram Shunt capacitance Circuit diagram

3.2 Commutation
 Load, or class-A, commutation is prevalent in thyristor circuits supplied from a dc source.
 The nature of the circuit should be such that when energized from a dc source, current must have a natural
tendency to decay to zero for the load commutation to occur in a thyristor circuit.
 Load commutation is possible in dc circuits and not in ac circuits. Class A , or load, commutation is also
called resonant commutation or self-commutation.
 A practical circuit employing load commutation is a series inverter.

3.2 Commutation
3.2.3. Forced Commutation
 In forced commutation, the commutating components L and C do not carry load current continuously.
 This commutation is classified into
a. Resonant commutation
b. Complementary commutation and
c. Impulse Commutation.
 In forced commutation, forward current of the thyristor is forced to zero by external circuitry called
commutation circuit.
 Forced commutation is usually employed in dc choppers and inverters.

3.2 Commutation
a. Resonant (Class B) Commutation
 Main thyristor Tl as well as auxiliary thyristor TA are off.
 Positive direction of capacitor voltage Vc and capacitor current ic
are marked. When Tl is turned on at t = 0, a constant current I0 is
established in the load circuit.
 Here, for simplicity, load current is assumed constant.

3.2 Commutation
b) Complimentary (Class C) Commutation
 Complimentary commutation , a thyristor carrying load current is commutated by transferring its load current
to another incoming thyristor.
 The firing of SCR Tl commutates T2 and subsequently, firing of SCR T2 would turn off Tl.
Complementary Commutation circuit Diagram

3.2 Commutation
 With the turn on of T2 at t1 , capacitor voltage Vc, suddenly appears as reverse bias across Tl to turn off it.
 Similarly, at t3 capacitor voltage Vc, applies a sudden reverse bias across T2 to turn it off.
 On account of this, class C commutation is also called complimentary commutation.
 Waveform for VTl indicates that a reverse voltage Vs, to zero appears across thyristor Tl for a certain
period.
 This period, called circuit turn-off time.

3.2 Commutation
C. Impulse (Class D) Commutation
 In figure shown below, Tl and TA are called main and auxiliary thyristor respectively.
 Initially, main thyristor Tl and auxiliary thyristor TA are off and capacitor is assumed charged to voltage Vc
with upper plate positive.
 When Tl is turned on at t = 0, source voltage Vs, is applied across load and load current Io begins to flow
which is assumed to remain constant.
Class-D commutation circuit diagram

3.2 Commutation
 With Tl on at t = 0, another oscillatory circuit consisting of C, T1, L and D is formed where the capacitor
current is given by
 At t1 auxiliary thyristor TA is turned on.
 Immediately after TA is on, capacitor voltage Vc, applies a
reverse voltage across main thyristor Tl so that UTI = -Vs. at
tl and SCR Tl is turned off and iT1 = 0.
 The load current is now carried by C and TA.
 Capacitor gets charged from - Vs to Vs with constant load
current I0.

3.2 Commutation
 The change is, therefore, linear from + Vs to - Vs as shown.
 When Vc =Vs, ic =0 at t2, thyristor TA is turned off.
 During the time TA is on from tl to t2, Vc=VTl, ic=-I0 .
 For main thyristor T1, circuit turn-off time is tc .
 With the firing of thyristor TA , a reverse voltage Vs, is suddenly applied across Tl ; this method of
commutation is therefore, also called Voltage commutation.
 With sudden appearance of reverse voltage across Tl, its current is quenched; in fact the current
momentarily reverses to recover the stored charge of TI.

3.2 Commutation
 As an auxiliary thyristor TA is used for turning-off the main thyristor Tl, this type of commutation is also
known as auxiliary commutation.
 When thyristor TA is turned on, capacitor gets connected across Tl to turn it off, this type of commutation
is, therefore, also called parallel-capacitor commutation .

3.2 Commutation
3.2.4. External Pulse (Class E)commutation
 In this type of commutation, a pulse of current is obtained from a separate voltage source to turn off
the conducting SCR.
 The peak value of this current pulse must be more than the load current.
External Pulse commutation Circuit

3.2 Commutation
 Here Vs is the voltage of the main source and V1 is the voltage of the auxiliary supply.
 Thyristor Tl is conducting and load is connected to source VS
 When thyristor T3 is turned on at t = 0; Vl, T3, L and C form an oscillatory circuit.
 Therefore, C is charged to a voltage +2V1 with upper plate positive at as shown and as oscillatory current
falls to zero.
 For turning off the main thyristor T1, thyristor T2 is turned on.
 With T2 on, Tl is subjected to a reverse voltage equal to Vs =-2V1 and Tl is therefore turned off.
 After Tl is off, capacitor discharges through the load.

Pe Bio CH3

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Pe Bio CH3

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CHAPTER THREE

the technique known as pulse width modulation (PWM).

power supplied from power source to load.

reference to produce an output related to the difference of the two inputs.

 A pulse width modulating signal is generated using a comparator.

tooth wave forms the other part of the input.

producing a modulated pulse width.

3/25/23 ECEg |Year V Semester I |Biomedical Engineering | Gashaye G. 3

generated at the output.

triangular carrier wave, Ac.

3/25/23 ECEg |Year V Semester I |Biomedical Engineering | Gashaye G. 5

power semiconductor devices such as thyristors, BJTs, MOSFETs, GTOs, etc.

using PWM in the gate signals in the electronic switches.

3/25/23 ECEg |Year V Semester I |Biomedical Engineering | Gashaye G. 6

single-phase inverter are:

1) Single-pulse width modulation

3) Sinusoidal pulse-width modulation

4) Modified sinusoidal pulse-width modulation

5) Phase displacement control

3/25/23 ECEg |Year V Semester I |Biomedical Engineering | Gashaye G. 7

According to this figure one can

observe that, there is a single

pulse of output voltage during

each half-cycle and the width of

the pulse is varied to control the

3/25/23 ECEg |Year V Semester I |Biomedical Engineering | Gashaye G. 8

 The output voltage waveform consists

of p pulses for each half-cycle of the

required output voltage.

 Minimum pulse width is zero and

maximum pulse width will be π/p.

3/25/23 ECEg |Year V Semester I |Biomedical Engineering | Gashaye G. 9

 These widths of output signal is depend on

the modulation index M which controls the

output voltage of the inverter.

3/25/23 ECEg |Year V Semester I |Biomedical Engineering | Gashaye G. 10

change much when modulation index changed.

the period of first 60˚ of the half cycle of

 This technique reduces the number of

switching of power devices and also

reduces switching losses.

3/25/23 ECEg |Year V Semester I |Biomedical Engineering | Gashaye G. 11

create the desired (low-frequency) target output voltage or current.

3/25/23 ECEg |Year V Semester I |Biomedical Engineering | Gashaye G. 12

be adopted to commutate the thyristor.

zero and on the configuration of the commutating circuits.

or voltage of a thyristor to zero to turn off the device.

3/25/23 ECEg |Year V Semester I |Biomedical Engineering | Gashaye G. 13

 Line or natural commutation

 External Pulse commutation

3/25/23 ECEg |Year V Semester I |Biomedical Engineering | Gashaye G. 14

every ·positive half cycle.

 This method of commutation is applied to phase-controlled converters, line-commutated inverters, ac voltage

controllers and step-down cyclo-converters.

3/25/23 ECEg |Year V Semester I |Biomedical Engineering | Gashaye G. 15

Series capacitance Circuit diagram Shunt capacitance Circuit diagram

3/25/23 ECEg |Year V Semester I |Biomedical Engineering | Gashaye G. 16

 Load, or class-A, commutation is prevalent in thyristor circuits supplied from a dc source.

called resonant commutation or self-commutation.

 A practical circuit employing load commutation is a series inverter.

3/25/23 ECEg |Year V Semester I |Biomedical Engineering | Gashaye G. 17

 This commutation is classified into