Carlson C03 FINAL ADA PPT

Foundations of Behavioral
Neuroscience
Ninth Edition
Chapter 3
Structure of the
Nervous System
Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Structure of the Nervous System (1 of 2)
Basic Features of the Nervous System
• An Overview
• Meninges
• The Ventricular System
• Production of Cerebrospinal Fluid
The Central Nervous System
• Development of the Central Nervous System
Structure of the Nervous System (2 of 2)
• The Forebrain
• The Midbrain
• The Hindbrain
• The Spinal Cord
The Peripheral Nervous System
• Spinal Nerves
• Cranial Nerves
• The Autonomic Nervous System
Basic Features of the Nervous System (1 of 4)
Learning Objective 1: Describe the appearance of the brain and identify the terms used to indicate
directions and planes of section.
• Anterior (Rostral)
– Located near or toward the head in central nervous
system
• Posterior (Caudal)
– Located near or toward the tail in central nervous
system
(2 of 4)
• Lateral
– Toward side of the body, away from the middle
• Medial
– Toward middle of the body, away from side
• Ipsilateral
– Refers to structures on same side of body (ipsi=“same”)
• Contralateral
– Refers to structures on opposite sides of body
(3 of 4)
• Ventral
– “Toward the belly”; with respect to central nervous
system, in a direction perpendicular to neuraxis toward
the bottom of skull or front surface of body
• Dorsal
– “Toward the back”; with respect to the central nervous
system, in a direction perpendicular to neuraxis toward
top of head or back
(4 of 4)
• Cross section
– With respect to central nervous system, a slice taken at
right angles to neuraxis
• Frontal section
– Slice through brain parallel to forehead
• Horizontal section
– Slice through brain parallel to ground
Figure 3.2
Brain Slices and Planes
Planes of section as they pertain to the human central nervous system.
RECAP
• Horizontal section • Anterior/Posterior
– Slice through brain parallel to
ground
• Cross section (sagittal) • Lateral/Medial
– With respect to central nervous
system, a slice taken at right
angles to neuraxis
• Frontal section (transverse) • Ventral/Dorsal
– Slice through brain parallel to
forehead
The Nervous System
Figure 3.3
The Nervous System
The figures show (a) the relation of the nervous system to the rest of the body, (b) detail of
the meninges that cover the central nervous system, and (c) a closer view of the lower
spinal cord and cauda equina.
The Meninges (1 of 4)
Learning Objective 2: Describe the divisions of the nervous system, the meninges, the ventricular
system, and the production of cerebrospinal fluid and its flow through the brain.
• Meninges (singular: meninx) (men in jees)

– 3 layers of connective tissue encasing CNS:
dura mater, arachnoid membrane, and pia mater
1. Dura mater
– Outermost of the meninges; tough and flexible
2. Arachnoid membrane (a rak noyd)
– Middle layer of meninges, located between outer dura
mater and inner pia mater
3. Pia mater
– Layer of meninges clings to surface of brain; thin &delicate
• Subarachnoid space
– Fluid-filled space that cushions brain; located between
arachnoid membrane and pia mater
• Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

– Clear fluid, similar to blood plasma, that fills ventricular
system of brain and subarachnoid space surrounding
brain and spinal cord
– Extracted from blood and manufactured in choroid
plexus rich in blood supply that protrudes to all 4
ventricles
• Ventricle (ven trik ul)
– Hollow space within brain, filled with cerebrospinal fluid
• 2 Lateral ventricles
– One of two ventricles located in center of telencephalon
• Third ventricle
– Ventricle located in the center of the diencephalon
• Fourth ventricle
– Ventricle located between cerebellum and dorsal pons, in
the center of metencephalon
• Cerebral aqueduct
– Narrow tube interconnecting third and fourth ventricles
of the brain, located in center of mesencephalon
• Choroid plexus
– Highly vascular tissue that protrudes into ventricles and
produces cerebrospinal fluid
– CSF ~125ml, ½ life = 3hrs
– Pushed from lateral to 3rd to 4th ventricle then from
aqueduct to subarachnoid space around the CNS then
reabsorbed into blood
Figure 3.4
The Ventricular System of the Brain
The figure shows (a) a lateral view of the brain, (b) a frontal view, (c) a dorsal view, and (d)
a midsagittal view.
Development of the Central Nervous System
Learning Objective 3: Outline the development of the central nervous system.
• Development begins early in embryonic life as hollow tube.

Parts of it elongate, form pockets, fold,…
• Process starts around 18th day of conception
• Neural tube
– Hollow tube, closed at rostral end, that forms from
ectodermal tissue (outer back part) early in embryonic
development
– Serves as origin of central nervous system
Figure 3.5
Brain Development
This schematic outline of brain development shows its relation to the ventricles. Views (a) and
(c) show early development. Views (b) and (d) show later development. View (e) shows a lateral
view of the left side of a semitransparent human brain with the brain stem “ghosted in.” The
colors of all figures denote corresponding regions.
Table 3.2
Anatomical Subdivisions of the Brain
Major Division Ventricle Subdivision Principal Structures

Lateral Telencephalon Cerebral cortex
Forebrain Basal ganglia
Limbic system
Forebrain Third Diencephalon Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Midbrain Cerebral aqueduct Mesencephalon Tectum
Tegmentum
Hindbrain Fourth Metencephalon Cerebellum
Pons
Hindbrain Fourth Myelencephalon Medulla oblongata
Prenatal Brain Development (1 of 2)
• Symmetrical division
– Division of progenitor cell that gives rise to two identical
progenitor cells
– Increases size of ventricular zone and brain that
develops from it
• Asymmetrical division
– Division of progenitor cell that gives rise to another
progenitor cell and neuron, which migrates away from
ventricular zone toward its final resting place in brain
Prenatal Brain Development (2 of 2)
Neurogenesis
• Production of new neurons
• For many years, researchers have believed that
neurogenesis cannot take place in fully developed
brain
• More recent studies show this belief to be incorrect
• Adult brain contains some stem cells (similar to
progenitor cells that give rise to cells of developing
brain) that can divide and produce neurons
Figure 3.7
Effects of Learning on Neurogenesis
This figure shows sections through a part of the hippocampus of rats that received training
on a learning task or were exposed to a control condition that did not lead to learning.
Arrows indicate newly formed cells.
Figure 3.8
Cross Section of the Human Brain
The brain slice shows major grooves (fissures) and gyri and the layer of cerebral cortex that
follows these convolutions.
Forebrain
Telencephalon
1. Cerebral cortex
– Cortex = bark, surrounds cerebral hemispheres
– ~2sqm and 3mm thick
– Consists mostly of glial cells and dendrites+cell bodies
 Grey appearance, grey matter
– Millions of axons run beneath the cerebral cortex
 White matter
– Different regions perform different actions
– 4 lobes
– 3 regions mainly receive external sensory inputs
Cerebral Cortex 4 lobes
• Frontal lobe
– Anterior portion of cerebral cortex, rostral to parietal lobe and
dorsal to temporal lobe
• Parietal lobe (pa rye i tul)
– Region of cerebral cortex caudal to frontal lobe and dorsal to
temporal lobe
• Temporal lobe (tem por ul)
– Region of cerebral cortex rostral to occipital lobe and ventral to
parietal and frontal lobes
• Occipital lobe (ok sip i tul)
– Region of cerebral cortex caudal to parietal and temporal lobes
Cerebral Cortex: sensory processing
1. Primary auditory cortex
– Region of superior temporal lobe whose primary input
is from auditory system
2. Primary visual cortex
– Region of posterior occipital lobe whose primary input
is from visual system
3. Primary somatosensory cortex

– Region of superior parietal lobe whose primary input is
from somatosensory system
Figure 3.10
The Four Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex
This figure shows the location of the four lobes, the primary sensory and motor
areas, and the association areas of the cerebral cortex. (a) Ventral view, from the base of
the brain. (b) Midsagittal view, with the cerebellum and brain stem removed. (c) Lateral
view.
Cerebral Cortex
Sensory Association Cortex
• Each primary sensory area of the cerebral cortex sends
information to adjacent regions called the sensory
association cortex
• Circuits of neurons in sensory association cortex analyze
information received from the primary sensory cortex
• Perception takes place there and memories are stored
there
Cerebral Cortex
• Motor association cortex
– Region of frontal lobe rostral (anterior) to primary motor
cortex
– Also known as premotor cortex
• Prefrontal cortex
– Region of frontal lobe rostral to motor association cortex
Figure 3.9
The Primary Sensory Regions of the Brain
The figure shows a lateral view of the left hemisphere of the brain and part of the inner
surface of the right hemisphere. The inset shows a cutaway of part of the frontal lobe of the
left hemisphere, permitting us to see the primary auditory cortex on the dorsal
surface of the temporal lobe, which forms the ventral bank of the lateral fissure.
Cerebral Cortex
Although we have two cerebral hemispheres with
somewhat lateralized functions, perceptions and
memories are unified
• This unity is accomplished by corpus callosum, a large
band of axons that connects corresponding parts of
association cortex of the left and right hemispheres
• Left and right temporal lobes are connected, left and right
parietal lobes are connected, and so on
• Bundles of axons that constitute corpus callosum are
obtained by means of diffusion tensor imaging
Figure 3.11
Bundles of Axons in the Corpus Callosum
This figure, obtained by means of diffusion tensor imaging, shows bundles of axons in the
corpus callosum that serve different regions of the cerebral cortex that constitute the corpus
callosum.
Cerebral Cortex
• Neocortex
– Phylogenetically newest cortex, including primary
sensory cortex, primary motor cortex, and association
cortex
• Limbic cortex
– Phylogenetically old cortex, located at medial edge
(“limbus”) of cerebral hemispheres
– Part of limbic system
Figure 3.12
A Midsagittal View of the Brain and Part of the Spinal Cord
Limbic system (1 of 2)
• Limbic system
Group of brain regions
including
– anterior thalamic nuclei,
– amygdala,
– hippocampus,
– limbic cortex,
– parts of hypothalamus,
– &their interconnecting fiber
bundles
Limbic system (2 of 2)
• Amygdala (a mig da la)
– Almond like small structure in interior of rostral
temporal lobe, containing set of nuclei
– Involved in emotions and fear processing
– Automatic
• Hippocampus
– Forebrain structure of temporal lobe, constituting
important part of limbic system
– Involves in memory retrieval
– And spatial orientation
Limbic system
• Fornix
– Fiber bundle that connects hippocampus with other
parts of brain, including mammillary bodies of
hypothalamus
• Mammillary bodies
– Protrusion of small round bodies at the posterior end of
hypothalamus, containing some hypothalamic nuclei
– Relay impulse from amygdala and hippocampus to
thalamus
– Recollective memory (time, place, emotion…)
Figure 3.13
The Major Components of the Limbic System
All of the left hemisphere except for the limbic system has been removed.
Basal Ganglia
– Collection of subcortical nuclei in forebrain, which lie
beneath anterior portion of lateral ventricles
 Caudate nucleus: voluntary muscles (Parkinson), learning,
inhibitory control
 Putamen: regulate movement
 Nucleus accumbens: pleasure, reward/punishment, cognitive
processing of aversion/motivation
 Substantia nigra: reward seeking, addiction, learning, eye mvmnt
 Globus pallidus, ventral pallidum: motivation, cognition…
– Strongly interconnected with cerebral cortex &thalamus
– Variety of functions: voluntary movement procedural
learning, habits, eye movement, cognition, emotion
Figure 3.14
The Basal Ganglia and Diencephalon
The basal ganglia and diencephalon (thalamus and hypothalamus) are ghosted into a
semitransparent brain.
Table 3.2

Limbic system
Hypothalamus
Tegmentum
Pons
The Central Nervous System
Learning Objective 5: Describe the two major structures of the diencephalon.
Diencephalon
• Second major division of forebrain
• Situated between telencephalon and the
mesencephalon
• Surrounds the third ventricle
• Its two most important structures are thalamus
and hypothalamus
Figure 3.15
A Midsagittal View of Part of the Brain
This view shows some of the nuclei of the hypothalamus. The nuclei are situated on the far
side of the wall of the third ventricle, inside the right hemisphere.
Diencephalon
• Thalamus
– Largest portion of the diencephalon
– Located above hypothalamus
– Contains nuclei that project information to specific
regions of cerebral cortex and receive information
from it
 Projection fiber
 Axon of a neuron in one region of the brain whose terminals
form synapses with neurons in another region
Thalamic Nuclei
• Lateral geniculate nucleus
– Group of cell bodies within lateral geniculate body of thalamus
that receives fibers from retina and projects fibers to primary
visual cortex
• Medial geniculate nucleus
– Group of cell bodies within medial geniculate body of thalamus
– Receives fibers from auditory system and projects fibers to
primary auditory cortex
• Ventrolateral nucleus
– Nucleus of thalamus that receives inputs from cerebellum and
sends axons to primary motor cortex
Hypothalamus
• Hypothalamus
– Lies at base of brain, under thalamus
– Controls ANS and endocrine system and organizes
behaviors related to survival of species
– Behaviors are so-called four F’s: Fight, Flight, Freeze
and Feed (chill and mate)
– Much of endocrine system is controlled by hormones
produced by cells in hypothalamus
– Special system of blood vessels directly connects
hypothalamus with the anterior pituitary gland
Hypothalamus
Posterior pituitary gland
• Is in many ways an extension of hypothalamus
Hypothalamus produces posterior pituitary hormones and
directly controls their secretion
• These hormones include
• oxytocin, which stimulates ejection of milk and uterine
contractions at time of childbirth, and stimulates
bonding
• vasopressin, which regulates urine output by kidneys
• Melatonin and endorphins
Figure 3.16
The Pituitary Gland
Hormones released by the neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus enter capillaries and
are conveyed to the anterior pituitary gland, where they control its secretion of hormones.
The hormones of the posterior pituitary gland are produced in the hypothalamus and
carried there in vesicles by means of axoplasmic transport.
Table 3.2

Limbic system
Hypothalamus
Tegmentum
Pons
The Midbrain
Learning Objective 6: Describe the major structures of the midbrain, the hindbrain,
and the spinal cord.
Midbrain (also called the mesencephalon)

surrounds cerebral aqueduct and consists of two major
parts: tectum and tegmentum
1. Tectum (“roof”) is located in dorsal portion of
mesencephalon
• Its principal structures which appear as four bumps on
dorsal surface of brain stem are
– superior colliculi, part of visual system
– inferior colliculi, part of auditory system
The Midbrain
2. Tegmentum (“covering”)
• consists of the portion of mesencephalon beneath tectum.
It includes:
– the rostral end of the reticular formation,
– several nuclei controlling eye movements,
– the periaqueductal gray matter (autonomic tract and
pain, temperature stimulation)
 target for patients with chronic pain
– the red nucleus (red color due to iron)
 motor coordination: crawling and arm mvmnt when walking
Table 3.2

Limbic system
Hypothalamus
Tegmentum
Pons
The Hindbrain
• The Hindbrain
– Surrounds fourth ventricle
– Consists of two major divisions:
1. metencephalon
2. myelencephalon
Metencephalon (1 of 3)
• Cerebellar cortex
– Cortex that covers surface of cerebellum
• Deep cerebellar nucleus
– Nuclei located within cerebellar hemispheres
– Receive projections from cerebellar cortex and send
projections out of cerebellum to other parts of brain
• Cerebellar peduncle (pee dun kul)
– One of three bundles of axons that attach each
cerebellar
– hemisphere to the dorsal pons
Figure 3.17
The Cerebellum and Brain Stem
The figure shows (a) a lateral view of a semitransparent brain, showing the cerebellum and
brain stem ghosted in, (b) a view from the back of the brain, and (c) a dorsal view of the
brain stem. The left hemisphere of the cerebellum and part of the right hemisphere have
been removed to show the inside of the fourth ventricle and the cerebellar peduncles. Part
(d) shows a cross section of the midbrain.
Damage to cerebellum impairs standing, walking, or
performance of coordinated movements
• Cerebellum receives visual, auditory, vestibular, and
somatosensory information, and it also receives information
about individual muscle movements being directed by brain
• Cerebellum integrates this information and modifies the motor
outflow, exerting a coordinating and smoothing effect on the
movements
• Cerebellar damage results in jerky, poorly coordinated,
exaggerated movements; extensive cerebellar damage makes it
impossible even to stand
• Pons, a large bulge in the brain stem, lies between the
mesencephalon and medulla oblongata, immediately
ventral to the cerebellum
• Pons means “bridge,” but it does not really look like one
• The pons contains, in its core, a portion of the reticular
formation, including some nuclei that appear to be
important in sleep and arousal
• It also contains a large nucleus that relays information from
the cerebral cortex to the cerebellum
Table 3.2

Limbic system
Hypothalamus
Tegmentum
Pons
Myelencephalon
• Myelencephalon contains one major structure, the
medulla oblongata (literally, “oblong marrow”)
• This structure is the most caudal portion of the
brain stem; Its lower border is the rostral end of
the spinal cord
• Function in autonomic reflexes (from vomiting to
sneezing)
• Contains cardiac, respiratory and vasomotor
centers regulating breathing, HR and BP.
Table 3.2

Limbic system
Hypothalamus
Tegmentum
Pons
The Spinal Cord
Spinal cord
• Long, conical structure, approximately as thick as an
adult’s little finger
• Principal function of the spinal cord is to distribute motor
fibers to the effector organs of the body (glands and
muscles) and to collect somatosensory information to be
passed on to the brain
• Spinal cord also has a certain degree of autonomy from
the brain; various reflexive control circuits are located there
Figure 3.18
Ventral View of the Spinal Column
Details show the anatomy of the bony vertebrae.
The Spinal Cord
• Dorsal root
– Spinal root that contains incoming (afferent) sensory
fibers
• Ventral root
– Spinal root that contains outgoing (efferent) motor
fibers
• Like brain, spinal cord consists of white matter

and gray matter
The Spinal Cord
• Spinal root
– Bundle of axons surrounded by connective tissue that
occurs in pairs, which fuse and form spinal nerve
• Cauda equina
– Bundle of spinal roots located caudal to end of spinal
cord
• Caudal block
– Anesthesia and paralysis of lower part of body
produced by injection of local anesthetic into
cerebrospinal fluid surrounding the cauda equina
Figure 3.19
Ventral View of the Spinal Cord
The figure shows (a) a portion of the spinal cord, showing the layers of the meninges and
the relation of the spinal cord to the vertebral column, and (b) a cross section through the
spinal cord. Ascending tracts are shown in blue; descending tracts are shown in red.
The Spinal Cord
• Ascending tracts (afferent/sensory) are in blue
• Descending tracts (efferent/motor) are in red
• White matter of spinal cord (consisting of
ascending and descending bundles of myelinated
axons) is on the outside
• Gray matter (mostly neural cell bodies and short,
unmyelinated axons) is on inside
Figure 3.20
A Cross Section of the Spinal Cord
The figure shows the routes taken by afferent and efferent axons through the dorsal and
ventral roots.
The Peripheral Nervous System
Learning Objective 7: Describe the peripheral nervous system, including the two divisions
of the autonomic nervous system.
The brain and spinal cord communicate with the

rest of the body via nerves:
1. The cranial nerves
2. The spinal nerves
• These nerves are part of the peripheral nervous
system (PNS),
• which conveys sensory information to CNS
• and conveys messages from CNS to the body’s
muscles and glands
Figure 3.20
A Cross Section of the Spinal Cord
The figure shows the routes taken by afferent and efferent axons through the dorsal and
ventral roots.
Cranial Nerves
Twelve pairs of cranial nerves are attached to
ventral surface of brain
• Most of these nerves serve sensory and motor
functions of head and neck region
Olfactory bulbs
• Complex structures containing considerable amount of neural
circuitry
• Part of brain
• Olfactory information is received via the olfactory bulbs, which
receive information from olfactory receptors in nose
Cranial Nerves
Vagus nerve
• Called the vagus (“wandering”) nerve because its
branches wander throughout thoracic and abdominal
cavities
• 10th cranial nerve that regulates functions of organs in the
thoracic and abdominal cavities
• Deep breathing and Cardiac Coherence stimulate this

nerve endings by moving the diaphragm
 stimulate the parasympathetic branch
Figure 3.21
The Cranial Nerves
The figure shows the 12 pairs of cranial nerves and the regions and functions they serve.
Red lines denote efferent axons that control muscles or glands;
Blue lines denote afferent sensory axons.
PNS: 2 branches
• Peripheral Nervous system
1. Somatic nervous system
– Part of PNS which receives sensory information from
the sensory organs
– controls movements of skeletal muscles
2. Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
– Other branch of peripheral nervous system concerned
with regulation of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and
glands
Autonomic Nervous System
The ANS consists of two anatomically separate
systems:
1. the sympathetic division
2. the parasympathetic division
• With few exceptions, all organs of body are
innervated by both of these subdivisions
• Have opposite effect
= Mutually exclusive, reciprocally inhibiting
Autonomic NS: Sympathetic
“Fight or flight”
Autonomic NS: Parasympathetic
“Rest and digest”
The Divisions of the Nervous System
LO 2.6 Identify the parts and functions of the brain and nervous system.
Nervous System
Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System
Brain Spinal Cord Autonomic Division Somatic Division
Sympathetic Parasympathetic

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Foundations of Behavioral

Planes of section as they pertain to the human central nervous system.

• Meninges (singular: meninx) (men in jees)

• Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

• Development begins early in embryonic life as hollow tube.

Major Division Ventricle Subdivision Principal Structures

3. Primary somatosensory cortex

Major Division Ventricle Subdivision Principal Structures

Major Division Ventricle Subdivision Principal Structures

Midbrain (also called the mesencephalon)

Major Division Ventricle Subdivision Principal Structures

Major Division Ventricle Subdivision Principal Structures

Major Division Ventricle Subdivision Principal Structures

Details show the anatomy of the bony vertebrae.

• Like brain, spinal cord consists of white matter

The brain and spinal cord communicate with the

• Deep breathing and Cardiac Coherence stimulate this

“Rest and digest”

Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System

Brain Spinal Cord Autonomic Division Somatic Division

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