Primary Data

Types of Primary Data

Demographic and Socio-economic Characteristics
◦ Attitudes and Opinions
◦ Awareness and Knowledge-Unaided recall, Aided recall and Recognition
◦ Intentions
◦ Motivation
◦ Behaviour
Demographic Variables
Age
Sex
Income
Education
Occupation
Social Class
Religion
Race
Nationality
Basic means of obtaining Primary Data
Communication and observation are two basic means of obtaining primary data
Methods of communication are classified by their degree of structure, their degree of disguise
and by the method of contact
Structured disguised questionnaires
Structured undisguised questionnaires
Unstructured undisguised questionnaires
Unstructured-disguised questionnaires
Projective Methods used in unstructured
disguised questionnaires
Word Association
Sentence completion
Story telling
Methods of Data Collection
Observation Method
Structured Observation
Participant observation
Disguised observation
Controlled and uncontrolled observation
Interview Method
Personal Interviews
◦ Structured Interviews
◦ Unstructured Interviews
◦ Focussed Interview
◦ Clinical Interview
◦ Non-directive interview
Merits of Interview techniques
More information and in greater depth can be obtained
Interviewer can overcome the resistance
Greater flexibility
Observation method can also be applied
Personal information can be easily obtained
Samples can be controlled more effectively
Interviewer has better control over respondents
Interviewer may catch the informant off-guard
Language of the interviewer can be adopted to the ability of the respondents
Collection of supplementary information possible
Weaknesses of the interview method
Very expensive method
Possibility of bias
Some respondents may not be easily approachable
Relatively more time consuming
Over-stimulation of the respondent
Training of the field-staff is more complex
Systematic errors
Effectiveness of interview may be difficult to obtain
Pre-requisites and basic tenets of
interviewing
Interviewers should be carefully selected, trained and briefed
They should be honest, sincere, hardworking, impartial and must possess ;the technical competence and practical experience
Occasional field checks
Provision to take appropriate action
Every effort to create friendly atmosphere to trust and confidence
Ask questions properly, intelligently and must record the responses accurately and completely
Answer legitimate questions asked by the respondent
Interviewer must be friendly, courteous, conversational and unbiased
No expression of feelings in front of respondent
Discourage irrelevant conversation
Take possible effort to keep the respondent on the track
 Telephone Interviews
It is more flexible compared to mailing method
Faster than other methods
Cheaper than personal interviewing method
Recall is easy
Higher rate of response
Replies can be recorded
Interviewer can explain requirements more easily
Access to inaccessible persons
No field staff is required
Representative and wider distribution of sample is possible
Demerits of Telephone Interview Method
Little time is given to respondents for considered answers
Restricted only to those having telephone facilities
Restricted by cost considerations
Not suitable for intensive surveys
Possibility of bias of the interviewer is more
Questions have to be short and to the point
Collection of data through questionnaires
There is low cost
It is free from the bias of the interviewer
Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers
Respondents who are not easily approachable can be reached
Large samples can be made use of and results can be made more dependable and reliable
Demerits of mail questionnaire method
Low rate of return
Only for educated and cooperative respondents
Control over questionnaire is lost once it is sent
There is inbuilt inflexibility
Possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies altogether
It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative
Slowest of all methods
Advisable to conduct pilot study
Main aspects of a questionnaire
General form
Question sequence
◦ Questions that put too great a strain on the memory or intellect of the respondents
◦ Questions of a personal character
◦ Questions related to personal wealth etc.

Question formation and wording

Essentials of a good questionnaire
Comparatively short and simple
Logical sequence
Personal and intimate questions should be left ot the end
Technical terms and vague expressions capable of different interpretations should be avoided
Dichotomous, multiple choice or open ended questions can be used
Avoid open ended questions as they are difficult to evaluate
Control questions in the questionnaire
Questions affecting the sentiments of the respondents should be avoided
Adequate space for answers should be provided
There should be provision for indication of uncertainity
Physical appearance of the questionnaire affects the cooperation the researcher receives
The quality of the paper should be good
Collection of data through schedules
Schedules are filled by enumerators who are specially appointed for the purpose
Recording of the responses also possible
Enurmerators explain the the aims and objects of investigation
Selection of enumerators for filling up schedules
Trained to perform their job well
Enumerators should be intelligent and must possess the cross examination capacity
Very useful in extensive enquiries
Leads to fairly reliable results
Very expensive
Difference between questionnaires and
schedules
1.Questionnaire is sent through mail to informants
Schedule is filled out by the research worker
2. Collecting data through questionnaire is relatively cheap and economical .
Collecting data through enumerators is more expensive
3. Non –response is usually high in case of questionnaire But it is low in schedules
4. In questionnaires, there is no clarity about who replies but in schedule the identity of the respondent is known
5. Questionnaire method is likely to be very slow but schedules collect information faster
6. Personal contact is generally not possible in questionnaire method but in schedules direct personal contact is established with respondents
7.Questionnaire method can be used with literate and cooperative respondents but schedules apply to all
8. Wider and more representative distribution of sample is possible in questionnaire method but in schedules difficulty in sending enumerators over a relatively wider
area
9.Risk of collecting incomplete and wrong information is relatively more under the questionnaire method but in schedules, the information collected is generally
complete and accurate
10. The success of questionnaire depends on the quality of the questionnaire itself, but in schedules it depends on honesty and competence of enumerators
11,Physica appearance of questionnaire must be attractive but this does not apply to schedules
12.Along with schedules observation method can also be used but in mail questionnaires such data collection is not possible
Other methods of data collection
Warranty cards
Distribution or store audits
Pantry audits
Consumer panels
Use of Mechanical devices – eye cameral, pupilometric camera, psychogalvanometer, motion
picture camera , audiometer
Projective techniques- word association tests, sentence completion tests, story completion tests
verbal projective tests pictorial techniques , Play techniques , quizzes, tests and examinations
Depth interviews
Content analysis
Pictorial techniques
Thematic Apperception test
Rosenzweig test
Rorschach test
Holtzman Inkblot test
Tomkins-Horn Picture arrangement test
Collection of Secondary Data
They must have following
characteristics
Reliability of data
Suitability of data
Adequacy of data
Selection of an appropriate method of
data collection
Nature ,scope and subject of enquiry
Availability of funds
Time Factor
Precision required
Case Study method
Popular form of qualitative analysis
Careful and complete observation of a social unit
Full analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their interrelationships
Deals with the processes that take place and their interrelationship.
It is an intensive investigation of the particular unit under consideration
Object of the method is to locate the factors that account fo the behavior patterns of the given
unit as an integrated totality
It is a technique by which individual factor whether it be an institution or is an episode in the
life of an individual or a group is analysed in the relationship in any other in the group.
Characteristics of Case Study Method
Researcher can take one single social unit or more of such units
Selected unit is studied intensively
Tries to understand the complexity of factors
Qualitative approach
An effort is made to know the mutual inter-relationship of causal
factors
Results in fruitful hypothesis
Assumptions of Case study method
•The assumption of uniformity
•The assumption of studying the natural history
•The assumption of comprehensive study of the
unit
Major Phases Involved
Recognition and determination of the status of the phenomenon
Collection of data , examination and history of the given
phenomenon
Diagnosis and identification of causal factors
Application of remedial measures
Follow up Programme to determine effectiveness of the treatment
applied
Advantages of Case study method
Enables the study of behavior pattern of the concerned unit
Real and enlightened record of personal experiences
Natural history of the social unit
Helps in forming relevant hypotheses along with the data
Facilitates intensive study of social units
Helps in constructing questionnaire
Researcher can use one or more research methods
Proves beneficial in the nature of units to be studied
Understand the past of a social unit
Perfect type of sociological method
Enhances the experience of the researcher
Makes possible the study of social changes
Indispensable for therapeutic and administrative purposes
Limitations of case study method
Case studies are seldom comparable
It is not considered as significant scientific data
Danger of false generalization is always there
It consumes more time and requires lot of expenditure
Most of the time case data are vitiated
It is based on several assumptions which may not be realistic
It may be used in a limited sphere
Response of the investigator is an important limitation of the case study
method