Bab

I
Bab

II
Algal
Bab Toxins
III
Reporters:
Bab Comota, Mharjhonz Rey
D a b a t i a n , Vi a
IV Gomez, Lloyd Egyt

Bab

V
 Algal Toxins
I
Anatoxin-a Nodularin
Bab

II Anatoxin- a (s) Lyngbyatoxin

Bab
Cylindrospermopsin
III Paralytic Shellfish Poison (PSPs)
(saxitoxin)

Bab
Paralytic Shellfish Poison lipopolysaccharides
IV (PSPs) (Gongyantoxin)

Microcystins
Bab

V
 Anatoxin a
I

Bab Description
Potent freshwater (river, streams, lakes, and ponds) toxins produced by cyanobacteria.
II
Bab

III
Bab

IV
Bab

V Anatoxin – a Bloom
 Anatoxin a
I

Bab

II
Bab

III
Bab

IV Source: Anabaena flos-aquae and genus of

Oscillatoria
Bab

V
 Anatoxin a
I

Bab Type: Neurotoxins

Formula:C10H15NO,
II Mol. Weight:165.23
Mode of Action:  
Anatoxin-a is a structural analogue
Bab Acetylcholine.
to the neurotransmitter
III acetylcholine.
It is a potent agonists at nicotinic
cholinergic receptors in neurons and
Bab at the neuromuscular junctions.
After initial continuous electrical
IV stimulation, a nerve block will
result in respiratory paralysis and
death. anatoxin a
Bab

V
 Anatoxin a
I

Bab

II
Bab

III
Bab

IV
Bab

V
 Anatoxin a
I

Bab
Exposure:
II
GI Tract
Ingesting shellfish or fish in contaminated waters
Bab Consuming contaminated water
III Skin
Direct skin contact with contaminated waters in bathing, showering,
swimming, etc.
Bab Lungs
Breathing air-borne anatoxin-a while boating, water skiing, or any
IV recreational activity.

Bab

V
 Anatoxin a
I

Bab Useful application:

Small quantities of anatoxin-a are produced synthetically for use in 
II acetylcholine receptor research.
Used for medicinal purposes to investigate diseases characterized by low
acetylcholine levels.
Bab

III Observed to cause effects on:

Human and Animals

Bab Biological Effect:

IV Neurologic symptoms, including numbness, tingling, burning sensation,
drowsiness, salivation, and speech disturbances.
At severe cases, often causing death due to paralysis of the respiratory
Bab
muscles.

V
 Anatoxin a (s)
I
Description: natural organophosphate that causes a prolonged inhibition of
acetylcholinesterase. It is about ten times more toxic than Anatoxin-a.
Bab

II
Bab

III
Bab

IV
Anatoxin-a (s) Bloom
Bab

V
 Anatoxin a (s)
I

Bab

II
Bab

III
Bab

IV
Genus of Anabaena
Bab

V
 Anatoxin a (s)
I
Type: Neurotoxins
Bab

II Formula: C7H17N4O4P, Mol.

Weight: 252.21 g/mol

Bab Anatoxin-a (s)
Mode of Action:
III Anatoxin-a(s) acts as a non-
competitive potent irreversible inhibitor of
electric acetylcholinesterase preventing it
Bab
from hydrolyzing the neurotransmitter
IV acetylcholine

Bab Acetylcholinesterase
V
 Anatoxin a (s)
I

Bab

II
Bab

III
Bab

IV
Bab

V
 Anatoxin a (s)
I
Exposure
Bab

II GI Tract
Ingesting shellfish or fish in contaminated waters
Bab
Consuming contaminated water
Skin
III Direct skin contact with contaminated waters in bathing,
showering, swimming, etc.
Bab
Lungs
IV Breathing air-borne anatoxin-a(s) while boating, water
skiing or any recreational activity.
Bab

V
 Anatoxin a (s)
I
Useful application:
Bab Used in studies of organophosphorus (OP) insecticides as
II they have the same structure and mechanism.

Bab
Observed to cause effect on:
Humans and Animals
III
Biological Effect:
Bab
Acute toxicity, following consumption of contaminated
IV water, is characterized by rapid onset of paralysis, tremors,
convulsions and death.
Bab

V
 Paralytic Shellfish Poison (PSPs) (saxitoxin) Bab

I
Bab

II It is a potent neurotoxin and the
best-known paralytic shellfish
toxin (PST). This refers to the
Bab entire suite of more than 50
structurally related neurotoxins
III (known collectively as
"saxitoxins") produced
by protists, algae and cyanobacteri
Bab
a which includes saxitoxin itself
Saxitoxin Bloom
IV (STX), neosaxitoxin (NSTX), gonyau
toxin (GTX)
and decarbamoylsaxitoxin (dcSTX)
Bab

V
 Paralytic Shellfish Poison (PSPs) (saxitoxin) Bab

I
Bab

II Source: Naturally produced by

certain species of marine 
dinoflagellates (Alexandrium
Bab  sp., Gymnodinium sp.,  Aphanizomenon flos-aquae 
III Pyrodinium sp.) and freshwater
cyanobacteria (Aphanizomenon
flos-aquae sp., some 
Bab
Aphanizomenon spp., 
IV Cylindrospermopsis sp., 
Lyngbya sp., Planktothrix sp

Bab
Alexandrium sp
V  
 Paralytic Shellfish Poison (PSPs) (saxitoxin) Bab

I
Type: Neurotoxins
Bab

II Formula: C10H17N7O4

Weight: 299.29
Bab
Mode of Action:
III Saxitoxin is one of the most potent known natural toxins. It is a neurotoxin that
acts as a selective, reversible, voltage-gated sodium channel blocker. The voltage-
gated sodium channel is essential for normal neuronal functioning.
Bab
Saxitoxin binds reversibly to the sodium channel. It binds directly in the pore of
IV the channel protein, occluding the opening, and preventing the flow of sodium
ions through the membrane. This leads to nervous shutdown, preventing normal
cellular function and leading to paralysis.
Bab

V
 Paralytic Shellfish Poison (PSPs) (saxitoxin) Bab

I
Bab

II
Bab

III
Bab

IV
Bab

V
 Paralytic Shellfish Poison (PSPs) (saxitoxin) Bab

I
Bab Exposure:
II
GI Tract
Bab Through ingestion of marine
III
organism accumulated with the
Bab toxic saxitoxin.
IV
Bab

V
 Paralytic Shellfish Poison (PSPs) (saxitoxin) Bab

I
Useful Application:
Bab
Highly purified saxitoxin is vital for the development, validation, and calibration
II of detection methods for these toxins.
It is also useful for for fundamental studies in physiology and pain management.

Bab Observed to cause effects on:

III Human and Animals

Biological effect:
Bab Ingestion of saxitoxin can cause numbness of the oral mucosa as quickly as 30
minutes after exposure.
IV In severe poisoning, illness typically progresses rapidly and may include
gastrointestinal (nausea, vomiting) and neurological (cranial nerve dysfunction, a
floating sensation, headache, muscle weakness, parasthesias and vertigo) signs
Bab and symptoms. Respiratory failure and death can occur from paralysis. 
V
 Paralytic Shellfish
Paralytic Shellfish Poison
Poison (PSP)
(PSP) (gongyantoxin)
(gongyantoxin) Bab

I
Description:
Bab
Currently, eight molecules are
II assigned to the group of
gonyautoxins, known as
Bab gonyautoxin 1 (GTX-1) to
gonyautoxin 8 (GTX-8). Ingestion
III of gonyautoxins through
consumption of mollusks
Bab  contaminated by toxic algae can
cause a human illness called 
IV paralytic shellfish poisoning
Gongyautoxin Bloom
 (PSP).
Bab . 

V
 Paralytic Shellfish Poison (PSPs) (saxitoxin) Bab

I
Bab

II
Bab

III
Bab

IV
Dinoflagellates species (Alexandrium sp., Gonyaulax sp.)
 
Bab

V
 Paralytic Shellfish
Paralytic Shellfish Poison
Poison (PSP)
(PSP) (gongyantoxin)
(gongyantoxin) Bab

I
Type: Neurotoxins
Bab
Formula: C10H17N7O8S Mol.
II
Weight: 395.35 g/mol
Bab Mode of Action:
III As neurotoxins, the gonyautoxins influence the nervous system.
They can bind with high affinity at the site 1 of the α-subunit of the voltage dependent 
sodium channels in the postsynaptic membrane.
Bab These channels are responsible for initiating the action potentials, after the synapse.
The binding of PSP toxins prevents the generation and propagation of these potentials
IV and hence blocks the synaptic function
. 
Bab

V
 Paralytic Shellfish
Paralytic Shellfish Poison
Poison (PSP)
(PSP) (gongyantoxin)
(gongyantoxin) Bab

I
Bab

II
Bab

III
Bab

IV
Bab

V
 Paralytic Shellfish
Paralytic Shellfish Poison
Poison (PSP)
(PSP) (gongyantoxin)
(gongyantoxin) Bab

I
Exposure
Bab
GI Tract
Consumption of zooplankton, shellfish, and/or forage fish that have the toxic algae in
II their systems.

Useful Application:
Bab Gonyautoxins can be used as treatment against acute or chronic anal fissures. The toxins
III help the muscle to relax and hence kill the pain.

Observed to cause effect on:

Bab Humans and animals

IV Biological effect:
Clinically it presents within 1 hour of ingestion with a rash, flushing, tachycardia, and,
in more severe cases, headache, gastrointestinal symptoms, bronchospasm, hypotension,
Bab angioedema, and airway compromise.
V . 
 Microcystins
I
Description
 Produced by certain freshwater
cyanobacteria, commonly known as 
blue-green algae.
II

Bab

III
Bab

IV
Bab

V
 Microcystins
I

II

Bab

III
Bab
Source
IV  Microcystis aeruginosa

Bab

V
 Microcystins
I
Type: Hepatotoxic and
possible human II
carcinogen

Formula:C49H74N10O12
Bab

III Mol. Weight:995.2

Bab Mode of Action:  

Microcystins covalently
IV bond to and inhibit protein
phosphates PP1 and PP2A.
Bab

V
 Microcystins
I

II

Bab

III
Bab

IV
Bab

V
 Microcystins
I

II

Bab

III
Bab

IV
Bab

V
 Microcystins
I

II

Bab

III
Bab

IV
Bab

V
 Nodularin
I
Photosynthetic cyanobacterium that forms
visible colonies that present as algal
blooms in brackish water bodies
throughout the world
II

Bab

III
Bab

IV
Bab

V
 Nodularin
I

II

Bab

III
Bab

IV Source
 Nodularia spumigena
Bab

V
 Nodularin
I
Type: Potent hepatotoxin
II
Formula:C41H60N8O10

Bab Mol. Weight: 824.963 g/mol

III Mode of Action:  

Once in the liver, nodularin inhibits three key
Bab
enzymes, specifically the catalytic units of
serine/threonine protein phosphatases: 
IV protein phosphatase 1 (PP-1) and 
protein phosphatase 2A. (PP-2A), and protein
phosphatase 3 (PP-3).
Bab

V
 Nodularin
I

II

Bab

III
Inhalation
Bab Ingestion Percutaneous Contact
IV
Bab

V
 Nodularin
I

Nodularins have been cited in the deaths of dogs,

sheep, and humans. II
Blistering around the mouth, sore throat, headache,
abdominal pain, nausea and vomiting, diarrhea,
Bab
dry cough and pneumonia. If
III
Damage to the liver may present as chronic
symptoms of liver disease. These symptoms
Bab include jaundice, bleeding easily, swollen
IV abdomen, mental disorientation or confusion,
sleepiness or coma.

Bab

V
 Lyngbyatoxin
I
The causative agent of “swimmer’s itch”
with its highly inflammatory effect.
II

Bab

III
Bab

IV
Bab

V
 Lyngbyatoxin
I

II

Bab

III
Bab

IV Source
 Moorea producens
Bab

V
 Lyngbyatoxin
I

Type: Dermatotoxins II
Formula:C27H39N3O2
Bab

III Mol. Weight: 437.6 g/mol

Mode of Action:  
Bab The toxins produced by Lyngbya increase the
IV activity of an important enzyme (protein kinase-
C), which adds phosphate to other enzymes, which
in turn stimulates their activity. 
Bab

V
 Lyngbyatoxin
I

II

Bab

III
Bab

IV
Bab

V
 Lyngbyatoxin
I

Exposure damages epithelial cells, such as skin

cells or cells that line the respiratory and digestive II
tracts. The toxins are also tumor promoters

Contact of Lyngbya with human skin can result in

Bab dermatitis with itching, burning, pain, rash,
III blisters, and cell death resulting in loss of
superficial layers of the skin.

Bab Ingesting may cause inflammation, swelling, and

damage to the mucous membranes of the mouth
IV and intestine. 

Bab

V
 Cylindrospermopsin
Bab

- A hepatotoxic polyketide-derived I
alkaloid with well-known associated
cases of animal and human mortalities. Bab
First described as being associated with
liver damage (hepatotoxin), this toxin
II
is now considered a cytotoxic and a
genotoxic due to its effect in other Bab
organs and in DNA. III
CYN is an alkaloid, ([C15H21N5O7S];
Bab 415 43 g mol1; glassy solid), a sulfate
IV ester of a tricyclic guanidine moiety
(rings A, B & C), with a uracil ring (D)
(1) and its zwitterionic nature makes it
Bab a highly water-soluble molecule
V
 Cylindrospermopsin
Bab

Source: I
Cylindrospermopsin is a
Bab
small alkaloid (i.e., a
nitrogen-containing, II
naturally synthesized
organic) toxin.It is produced Bab

by members of a number of III

cyanobacterial genera,
Bab including
IV Cylindrospermopsis,
Aphanizomenon, Umezakia,
Anabaena (now
Bab
Dolichospermum), Lyngbya,
V and Raphidiopsis.
 Cylindrospermopsin
Bab

Mode of action:
I
  Bab
Cylindrospermopsin accumulates in liver over time, II
binds to DNA, causes DNA fragmentation, and inhibits
protein synthesis. The toxin causes  Bab

metabolic disturbances, including oxidative damage III

related to decreased concentrations of reduced 
Bab glutathione and diminished glutathione synthesis.
IV Such oxidative injury is implicated in cytotoxicity in
several organs, including the liver, kidneys, and heart. 
Bab

V
 Cylindrospermopsin
Bab

Exposure: I
Exposure to cylindrospermopsin is from contaminated water supplies.
Clinical signs of toxicosis include bloody diarrhea, lethargy, dehydration, Bab
hypovolemia, shock, and acute death. Studies frequently mention the liver as
being the most severely affected organ.
II
 
Routes of exposure Bab
Ingestion: swallowing contaminated water or eating food contaminated with
toxins (including taking contaminated nutritional supplements)
III
Bab Inhalation: breathing in aerosolized toxins
IV Skin contact: direct contact with contaminated water during activities like
swimming or boating
Bab

V Eye contact: direct contact with contaminated water or aerosols

 Cyanobacterial lipopolysaccharides
Bab

Lipopolysaccharides are known as irritant toxins and are I

generally found in the outer membrane of the cell wall of
Bab
Gram-negative bacteria, including Cyanobacteria, where they
form complexes with proteins and phospholipids. It is generally II
the fatty acid component of the LPS molecule that elicits an
irritant allergic response in humans and mammals. Bab

Cyanobacterial LPS are considerably less potent than LPS from III
pathogenic Gram-negative bacteria such as Salmonella (Chorus
Bab and Bartram, 1999 and Masango,2007). LPS is a potent
IV activator of macrophages and can results in the production of
cytokines and growth factors.
Bab

V
 Cyanobacterial lipopolysaccharides
Bab

LPS is also called an endotoxin because it is a toxin located inside the bacterial cell. I
It was originally theorized that endotoxin is released once the bacteria dies. It is now
a known fact that bacteria release small amounts of endotoxin as a part of their Bab
normal metabolism although the majority are still retained inside the cell.
II
Cyanobacterial LPS is attributed with a range of pathological effects in humans, from
gastro-intestinal illness, cutaneous signs and symptoms, allergy, respiratory disease,
Bab
headache and fever.
  III
LPS present in an environment can be recognized and can activate different
types of cells in the body, including keratinocytes and lining epithelia of the
Bab gastrointestinal tract, airways, and lungs. However, the most potent pathological
effects are from LPS that enters systemic blood circulation through the altered
IV intestinal barrier. The increased permeability of intestinal epithelium is reported to be
related to numerous pathological conditions with the symptoms of gastroenteritis.
LPS entering systemic circulation can induce the chronic or even acute systemic
Bab
inflammatory response of the organism known as endotoxemia
V  
 Cyanobacterial lipopolysaccharides
Bab

Sources: I
Microcystis aeruginosa
Bab
Mode of Action:
The presence of LPS in the serum, as low as 1 to 2 mg, can induce toxicity in II
the host mainly through the lipid A portion (the endotoxin). Endotoxin can induce
symptoms of inflammation, fever, and leukopenia, and damage to blood vessels,
Bab
finally leading to hypotension. High endotoxin can cause septicemia and shock.
III
The basic mechanisms of LPS/LP-induced inflammation run via stimulation of
cell-surface receptors on immune cells, toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) for LPS and TLR-
Bab 2 for LP, which subsequently leads to an intracellular reaction by recruiting
transcription factors such as NF-κB in the nucleus followed by the secretion of
IV chemokines and cytokines. In septic patients, this reaction gets out of control with the
subsequent life-threatening “cytokine storm.”
 
Bab

V
 Current Trends Bab

I
Current incidents Bab
  II
In Portugal, recently, microcystins were found in the kidneys of
death farmed cows after blooms were observed in a near water Bab
resource used for animal drinking. Menezes, C.; Nova, R.; Vale,
M.; Azevedo, J.; Vasconcelos, V.; Pinto, C. First description of an III
outbreak of cattle intoxication by cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)
Bab
in the South of Portugal. Bov. Pract. 2019, 53, 66–70. [
Google Scholar] IV
Infographics from OHHABS
Bab

V
 Current Trends Bab

I
Bab

II
Bab

III
Bab

IV
Bab

V
 Current Trends
Progress in Research
Bab

I
With statistical models, it is possible to predict future CyanoBlooms episodes by Bab
correlating the data (cyanobacterial biomass) with other environmental data (Christensen,
V.G.; Stelzer, E.A.; Eikenberry, B.C.; Olds, H.T.; LeDuc, J.F.; Maki, R.P.; Saley, A.M.; II
Norland, J.; Khan, E. Cyanotoxin mixture models: Relating environmental variables and
toxin co-occurrence to human exposure risk. J. Haz. Mat. 2021, 415, 125560.
Bab

Regulations III
Countries like Australia, New Zealand, and Brazil adopted the enumeration of
cylindrospermopsins into their national legislation which include Australia (1 μg/L), New
Zealand (1 μg/L), and Brazil (15 μg/L) [15]. Neurotoxins guideline values have also been Bab
adopted to the national legislation where New Zealand regulates both anatoxins (6 μg/L)
and saxitoxins (3 μg/L), and Australia and Brazil regulate only saxitoxins (3 μg/L) [15].
IV
These altogether reinforce the surveillance of freshwater systems through campaigns
where screening of cyanotoxins can occur prior to bloom onset. Turner, A.D.; Dhanji-
Bab
Rapkova, M.; O’Neill, A.; Coates, L.; Lewis, A.; Lewis, K. Analysis of Microcystins in
V Cyanobacterial Blooms from Freshwater Bodies in England. Toxins 2018, 10, 39. 
 Current Trends Bab

I
Detection:
Bab
Bioassays using microbes, plants & animals
- Assessment based on some bacterial species (Aeromonas hydrophila, Bacillus subtilis) II
found to be sensitive to different cyanotoxin. The n-hexane extracts of
Cylindrospermum majus, and Limnothrix redekei and methanol extracts of Anabaena
variabilis and Pseudanabaena catenata inhibit the growth of Bacillus subtilis. Bab
(Sutradhar, M. J. Mater. Environ. Sci., 2022, 13(7), pp. 768-777)
III
- It has been found that MCs can inhibit growth and chlorophyll content in Solanum
tuberosum cultures. Appropriate information on toxic effects can be obtained by Bab
biological analysis, which is not possible with the aid of physicochemical analysis.
IV
Bab

V
 Current Trends Bab

I
Mitigation:
Bab
1. Membrane Filtration
The membrane filtration method is used for microbiological analysis of water using a II
special filter ‘millipore filter” of 0.45 µm to trap the microorganisms for their isolation
and enumeration in a test water sample. There are several membrane filtration methods
(reverse osmosis, ultrafiltration, and nanofiltration) that separate the contaminants based Bab
on the size and physicochemical characteristics of the membrane. About 80% of
microcystins (MCs) removal can be possible through nanofiltration and reverse osmosis.
III
2. Coconut Shell Bab
It is a very effective method using coconut shell-based activated carbon for the removal
of organic matter, dyes, and metals [43]. It has a size of (0.8-2 nm). Because of the pore IV
size, it affects the SA (surface area) for the process of adsorption.

Bab

V
 Current Trends Bab

I
Mitigation:
Bab

3. Lignin II
It is a complex organic polymer made up of phenylpropanoid units. It bounds covalently
with polysaccharides within the cell wall of plants that act as a key structural material in
the supportive tissues of plants. ACs based on lignin can be prepared from lignocellulosic Bab
materials such as wood, agricultural wastes, grasses, etc
III
Bab

IV
Bab

V
 Challenges Bab

I
Bab

Changes In
II
Challenges For
Mapping 1 Populations, Climate,
Economy, Bab
Cyanotoxin Atmospheric And
Patterns From Oceanic Circulations, III
Water Cycle,
2
Remote Sensing Of
Cyanobacteria Pollution, Biodiversity Bab

IV
Bab

V
 Challenges Bab

I
Bab

II
Prediction of 3
bloom Prediction Bab

occurrence
III
of
4 toxicity Bab

IV
Bab

V
 Bab

I
References Bab

II
Al-Hussieny, A. A. (2022, March 6). Algae Toxins and Their Treatment. Retrieved
from Intechopen: https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/80734
Bab
Birgit Puschner, J.-F. H. (2007). CHAPTER 59 - Cyanobacterial (blue-green algae)
toxins. Veterinary Toxicology: Basic and Clinical Principles, 714-724.
III
Jiri Patocka, R. C. (2011, September 9). Military Medical Science Letters. Retrieved Bab
from ANATOXIN-A(S): NATURAL ORGANOPHOSPHORUS:
https://www.mmsl.cz/pdfs/mms/2011/03/05.pdf IV
Puschner, B. H. (2008). Diagnosis of Anatoxin-a Poisoning in Dogs from North
America. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation, 89-92. Bab

V
 Bab

I
References Bab

II
Tang, Y., Wang, H., Xiang, J., Chen, Y., He, W., Deng, N., & Yang, H. (2010). A
sensitive immunosorbent bio-barcode assay combining PCR with icELISA for
detection of gonyautoxin. Analytica Chimica Acta, 2010-2014. Bab

Victoria G. Christensen, E. K. (2020). Freshwater neurotoxins and concerns for

III
human, animal, and ecosystem. Science of the Total Environment.
Bab
Sylvain Merel, David Walker, Ruth Chicana, Shane Snyder, Estelle Baurès, Olivier
Thomas, State of knowledge and concerns on cyanobacterial blooms and cyanotoxins, IV
Environment International, Volume 59, 2013, Pages 303-327, ISSN 0160 4120,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2013.06.013.
(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412013001311) Bab

V
 Bab

I
References Bab

II
Jun He, Jun Chen, Feng Chen, Liang Chen, John P. Giesy, Yuming Guo, Gaodao
Liang, Xuwei Deng, Wenjing Wang, and Ping Xie
Environmental Science & Technology 2022 56 (10), 6548-6559 Bab
DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c00973
III
Gulledge, Brian M; Aggen, James B; Eng, Hugo; Sweimeh, Khuloud; Chamberlin,
A.Richard (September 2003). "Microcystin analogues comprised only of adda and a Bab
single additional amino acid retain moderate activity as PP1/PP2A
inhibitors". Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters. 13 (17): 2907–2911. doi: IV
10.1016/S0960-894X(03)00588-2. PMID 14611855.

Bab

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 Bab

I
Bab

II
Bab

III Thank You

Bab

IV
Bab