What you will learn:

 free electron theory (Introduction), diffusion and drift current (qualitative), fermi
energy, Fermi-dirac distribution function, band theory of solids -formation of
allowed and forbidden energy bands.

 Concept of effective mass - electrons and holes, Hall effect (with derivation),
semiconductors and insulators, fermi level for intrinsic and extrinsic
semiconductors, direct and indirect band gap semiconductors.
 Free electron theory

 Free electron theory is proposed to explain the properties of solid material like
electrical and thermal conductivity etc..

 Free electron theory is developed by Drude & Lorentz in 1900. According to this
theory, a metal consists of electrons which are free to move (valence electron) in the
crystal like molecules of a gas in a container.
 Free electron theory
Valence electron
 A valence electron is an outer shell electron that is
associated with an atom. Rest electron are known as
core electrons.
= +  When 2 atoms bring together valence electron of each
atom will experience electrostatic attractive force due
to other metallic ion and the Metallic bond is formed.
It may be described as the sharing of free electrons
+ + among a structure of positively charged ions

 Sea of floating free electron (Valence electron)

 Not attached to any atom

 Free to move
 Postulates (Free electron theory)

 The valence electrons of metallic atoms are free to move about the whole volume of the metals like the
molecules of a gas in a container. The collection of valence electrons from all the atoms in a given piece
of metal forms electron gas. It is free to move throughout the volume of the metal.
 These free electrons move in random directions and make collisions with either positive ions fixed in the
lattice or other free electrons. All the collisions are elastic i.e., there is no loss of energy.
 The movements of free electrons obey the laws of the classical kinetic theory of gases.
 The velocities of free electrons in a metal obey the classical Maxwell-Boltzmann law of distribution of
velocities.
 The free electrons move in a completely uniform potential field due to ions fixed in the lattice.
 Diffusion Current

 Diffusion is the movement of a substance from an area of high concentration to

an area of low concentration.
 Diffusion current is a current caused by the diffusion of charge carriers.
- diffusion current is due to the concentration gradient
- without biasing current in pn junction is diffusion current
 Drift Current
 The flow of charge carriers, which is due to the applied voltage or electric field is called drift
current.
 Electrons (negatively charged particle) & holes (positively charged particle) are attracted
towards the positive terminal of a battery and negative terminal respectively.

+ -

𝐸
Relationship between current, drift velocity & current density
Mean free path (λ):
 The average distance travelled by a free electron between any two successive collisions in the
presence of an applied electric field is known as mean free path. It is the product of drift
velocity vd of free electron and collision time ιc.

Collision time (ιc):

 The average time taken by a free electron between any two successive collisions is known as
collision time. It is expressed mathematically as ιc = λ / vd

Relaxation time (ι):

 The average time taken by a free electron to reach its equilibrium position from its disturbed
position due to the application of an external electrical field is called relaxation time. It is
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Ohm’s law from free electron theory
 Wiedemann-Franz law

 Wiedemann–Franz law describes the relationship between the electrical conductivity

and the electrical component of the thermal conductivity of a metal. It quantifies the
idea that metals that are good electrical conductors are also good thermal conductors.
According to Wiedemann–Franz law
 Success (Free electron theory)

 It was only able to explain the properties of metals such as Electrical conductivity.
 Ohm’s law
 Thermal conductivity
 Wiedemann-Franz law (relationship between electric and thermal conductivity)
 Optical properties of metals like high luster (shining).
 Failure (Free electron theory)

 It could not explained the difference between conductors, insulators and

semiconductors
 It is found that divalent and trivalent metals are not good conductors even though the
theory say the conductivity is proportional to the free electron concentration. Rather
monovalent metals Cu, Ag, Au, etc are good conductors.
Band Theory
 Band Theory

Energy gap between conduction band and valence band is known as energy
band gap or forbidden energy band gap
Classification of material based on Band Theory

Eg > 3 eV Eg < 3 eV Eg = 0
 Semiconductor

Based on doping Based on band gap

• Intrinsic – pure semiconductor • Direct bandgap

(without any doping) • Indirect bandgap
• Extrinsic (doped semiconductor)
 Extrinsic Semiconductor (doped semiconductor)

P-type Semiconductor N-type Semiconductor

• Doped with trivalent impurities e.g.
Indium , Gallium, Aluminium, Boron
• Majorities carriers - holes
• Minorities carriers - electron
• Impurities are acceptor
• Doped with pentavalent impurities e.g.
Phosphorus (P), Arsenic (As), Antimony
(Sb)
• Majorities carriers – electrons
• Minorities carriers - Holes
• Impurities are donor
Fermi level in n-type semiconductors:
Fermi level in p-type semiconductors
Density of states
It is defined as the number of energy states per unit energy range. It is denoted by the symbol D(E). In other words, the ‘density of states’ for electrons in a
band gives the number of orbitals (or states) in a certain energy range. Hence, the number of filled (i.e., density of electron state) states having the energy in
the range E and E + dE is

N(E)dE = E(E) f (E)dE

 Direct band gap semiconductor

Direct band gap semiconductor are efficient photon emitters

(used for making optical device)
 Indirect band gap semiconductor

Indirect band gap semiconductor are not used for making optical device
Effective mass
Fermi energy distribution function
Fermi energy level is lies from 0 to 1, it is clear by this diagram.
• Fermi energy level in semiconductor
 Hall Effect

• If a current carrying conductor placed in a perpendicular magnetic field, a

potential difference will generate in the conductor which is perpendicular to
both magnetic field and current. This phenomenon is called Hall Effect and
potential difference generated (voltage) is called Hall voltage. In solid state
physics, Hall effect is an important tool to characterize the materials
especially semiconductors.
• It directly determines both the sign and density of charge carriers in a given
sample.
Current (charges are in motion) is flowing through sample. Charges
will experience force Fm due to magnetic field.

¿ 𝑞𝑣𝐵
Where q is unit charge, v is drift velocity, B is applied magnetic field

Due to Fm charges will accumulate at the opposite faces of the

sample. As charges get separated Voltage will developed (Hall
voltage). Due to this charges will experience force F E due to
developed electric field whose direction (FE) is opposite the Fm .

At equilibrium condition
FE = F m
𝑞𝑣𝐵=𝑞𝐸 𝑉𝐻
𝐸=
𝑤
𝑉 𝐻 =𝑣𝐵𝑤
w is width of sample.
 𝐼 𝐼 Since 𝐴=𝑤𝑡
𝑣= =
𝑛𝑞𝐴 𝑛𝑞𝑤𝑡
I is current flowing in sample
n is charge concentration
Putting the value of drift velocity in Hall voltage expression
A is cross sectional area
t is thickness of sample
𝐵𝑤𝐼 𝐵𝐼
𝑉 𝐻 =𝑣𝐵𝑤= =
𝑛𝑞𝑤𝑡 𝑛𝑞𝑡

𝑅 𝐻 𝐵𝐼 1
𝑉 𝐻= ⟹ 𝑅 𝐻=
𝑡 𝑛𝑞

𝑉 𝐻𝑡
𝑅 𝐻= RH is Hall coefficient
𝐵𝐼
RH unit (SI) is m3/c
If RH < 0 then electrons are majority charge carriers (n type semiconductor)

If RH > 0 then holes are majority charge carriers (p type semiconductor)

𝜎 is conductivity
𝜎 =𝑛𝑒 𝜇
𝜇 Mobility (drift velocity / electric field)
𝜇
𝜎= e is unit charge
|𝑅 𝐻|

𝜇=|𝑅 𝐻| 𝜎