Chemistry properties of

matter
Sidrah Muhammad Danish
What is matter
• Matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms and can be
represented or explained as something that takes up space. It must
display both the mass and volume properties.
Properties
• Properties are the characteristics that enable us to differentiate one
material from another. A physical property is an attribute of matter
that is independent of its chemical composition.
Two types of properties
Physical properties
• A physical property is any property
that is measurable, whose value
describes a state of a physical system.
[1] The changes in the physical
properties of a system can be used to
describe its changes between
momentary states. Physical properties
are often referred to as observables.
They are not modal properties. A
quantifiable physical property is called
physical quantity.
Chemical properties
• A chemical property is any of a material's
properties that becomes evident during, or after,
a chemical reaction; that is, any quality that can
be established only by changing a substance's
chemical identity.[1] Simply speaking, chemical
properties cannot be determined just by viewing
or touching the substance; the substance's
internal structure must be affected greatly for its
chemical properties to be investigated. When a
substance goes under a chemical reaction, the
properties will change drastically, resulting in
chemical change. However, a catalytic property
would also be a chemical property.
Physical properties
Extensive and intensive properties are just physical properties but divided into two
specific groups.

Extensive properties Intensive properties

• Extensive properties, such as • intensive properties, such as

volume and mass, depending on color and density, do not.
the amount of substance we are
measuring,
Extensive properties
• Volume, energy, and mass are examples of extensive properties.
There are properties such as length, mass, volume, weight, etc. that
depend on the quantity or size of the matter, these properties are
called an extensive property of matter and their value changes if the
size or quantity of matter changes.
Intensive properties
• The properties of matter that do not depend on the size or quantity of
matter in any way are referred to as an intensive property of matter.
Temperatures, density, color, melting and boiling point, etc., all are
intensive property as they will not change with a change in size or
quantity of matter
Identifying a substance
what is a substance?
• Definition of Substance. A substance is matter which has a specific
composition and specific properties. Every pure element is a
substance. Every pure compound is a substance
States of matter in the world

• The five phases of matter. There are four natural states of matter:
Solids, liquids, gases and plasma. The fifth state is the man-made
Bose-Einstein condensates.
Solid
• firm and stable in shape; not liquid or fluid.
Types in solids
solid
• Solid is one of the three main states of matter, along with liquid and gas.
Matter is the "stuff" of the universe, the atoms, molecules and ions that
make up all physical substances. In a solid, these particles are packed
closely together and are not free to move about within the substance.
Molecular motion for the particles in a solid is confined to very small
vibrations of the atoms around their fixed positions; therefore, solids have
a fixed shape that is difficult to change. Solids also have a definite volume;
that is, they keep their size no matter how you try to change them.

• Solids are divided into two main categories, crystalline solids and
amorphous solids, based on how the particles are arranged.
Crystalline solids

• Crystalline solids, or crystals, are regarded as "true solids." Minerals are crystalline solids. Common table salt is one
example of this kind of solid. In crystalline solids, the atoms, ions or molecules are arranged in an ordered and
symmetrical pattern that is repeated over the entire crystal. The smallest repeating structure of a solid is called a unit
cell, which is like a brick in a wall. Unit cells combine to form a network called a crystal lattice. There are 14 types of
lattices, called Bravais lattices (named after Auguste Bravais, a 19th-century French physicist), and they are classified
into seven crystal systems based on the arrangement of the atoms. The ChemWiki page at the University of
California, Davis lists these systems as cubic, hexagonal, tetragonal, rhombohedral, orthorhombic, monoclinic and
triclinic.

• Aside from the regular arrangement of particles, crystalline solids have several other characteristic properties. They
are generally incompressible, meaning they cannot be compressed into smaller shapes. Because of the repeating
geometric structure of the crystal, all the bonds between the particles have equal strength. This means that a
crystalline solid will have a distinct melting point, because applying heat will break all the bonds at the same time.
• Crystalline solids also exhibit anisotropy. This means that properties such as refractive index (how much light bends
when passing through the substance), conductivity (how well it conducts electricity) and tensile strength (the force
required to break it apart) will vary depending on the direction from which a force is applied. Crystalline solids also
exhibit cleavage; when broken apart, the pieces will have planed surfaces, or straight edges.
Ionic solids
• Ionic compounds form crystals that are composed of oppositely charged ions: a positively
charged cation and a negatively charged anion. Because of the strong attraction between
opposite charges, it takes a lot of energy to overcome ionic bonds. This means that ionic
compounds have very high melting points, often between 300 and 1,000 degrees Celsius
(572 to 1,832 degrees Fahrenheit).

• While the crystals themselves are hard, brittle and nonconductive, most ionic compounds
can be dissolved in water, forming a solution of free ions that will conduct electricity. They
may be simple binary salts like sodium chloride (NaCl), or table salt, where one atom of a
metallic element (sodium) is bonded to one atom of a nonmetallic element (chlorine).
They may also be composed of polyatomic ions such as NH4NO3 (ammonium nitrate).
Polyatomic ions are groups of atoms that share electrons (called covalent bonding) and
function in a compound as if they constituted a single charged ion.
Molecular solids
• Molecular solids are composed of covalently bonded molecules attracted to each other by
electrostatic forces (called van der Waals forces, according to the HyperPhysics website).
Because covalent bonding involves sharing electrons rather than outright transfer of those
particles, the shared electrons may spend more time in the electron cloud of the larger atom,
causing weak or shifting polarity. This electrostatic attraction between the two poles (dipoles)
is much weaker than ionic or covalent bonding, so molecular solids tend to be softer than
ionic crystals and have lower melting points (many will melt at less then 100 C, or 212 F).
Most molecular solids are nonpolar. These nonpolar molecular solids will not dissolve in
water, but will dissolve in a nonpolar solvent, such as benzene and octane. Polar molecular
solids, such as sugar, dissolve easily in water. Molecular solids are nonconductive.

• Examples of molecular solids include ice, sugar, halogens like solid chlorine (Cl2), and
compounds consisting of a halogen and hydrogen such as hydrogen chloride (HCl). Fullerene
"buckyballs" are also molecular solids.
Network covalent solids
• In a network solid, there are no individual molecules. The atoms are
covalently bonded in a continuous network, resulting in huge crystals.
In a network solid, each atom is covalently bonded to all the
surrounding atoms. Network solids have similar properties to ionic
solids. They are very hard, somewhat brittle solids with extremely
high melting points (higher than 1,000 C or 1,800 F). Unlike ionic
compounds, they do not dissolve in water, nor do they conduct
electricity.

• Examples of network solids include diamonds, amethysts and rubies.

Metallic solids
• Metals are opaque, lustrous solids that are both malleable and ductile. Malleable means they are soft and can be
shaped or pressed into thin sheets, while ductile means they can be pulled into wires. In a metallic bond, the
valence electrons are not donated or shared as they are in ionic and covalent bonding. Rather, the electron clouds
of adjacent atoms overlap so that electrons become delocalized. The electrons move with relative freedom from
one atom to another throughout the crystal.

• A metal may be described as a lattice of positive cations within a "sea" of negative electrons. This electron mobility
means that metals are highly conductive of heat and electricity. Metals tend to have high melting points, though
notable exceptions are mercury, which has a melting point of minus 37.84 degrees Fahrenheit (minus 38.8 Celsius),
and phosphorous, with a melting point of 111.2 F (44 C).

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• An alloy is a solid mixture of a metallic element with another substance. While pure metals can be overly malleable
and heavy, alloys are more workable. Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin, while steel is an alloy of iron, carbon and
other additives.
2 type of solids Amorphous solids
nd

• In amorphous solids (literally "solids without form"), the particles do not have a
repeating lattice pattern. They are also called "pseudo solids." Examples of
amorphous solids include glass, rubber, gels and most plastics. An amorphous
solid does not have a definite melting point; instead, it melts gradually over a
range of temperatures, because the bonds do not break all at once. This means
an amorphous solid will melt into a soft, malleable state (think candle wax or
molten glass) before turning completely into a liquid.

• Amorphous solids have no characteristic symmetry, so they do not have regular

planes of cleavage when cut; the edges may be curved. They are called isotropic
because properties such as refractive index, conductivity and tensile strength are
equal regardless of the direction in which a force is applied.
Liquid
• a substance that flows freely but is of constant volume, having a consistency like
that of water or oil.
• The liquid state of matter is an intermediate phase between solid and gas. Like the
particles of a solid, particles in a liquid are subject to intermolecular attraction;
however, liquid particles have more space between them, so they are not fixed in
position. The attraction between the particles in a liquid keeps the volume of the
liquid constant.

• The movement of the particles causes the liquid to be variable in shape. Liquids
will flow and fill the lowest portion of a container, taking on the shape of the
container but not changing in volume. The limited amount of space between
particles means that liquids have only very limited compressibility.
cohesion
• Cohesion is the tendency for the same kind of particles to be attracted to one another. This
cohesive "stickiness" accounts for the surface tension of a liquid. Surface tension can be
thought of as a very thin "skin" of particles that are more strongly attracted to each other
than they are to the particles surrounding them. As long as these forces of attraction are
undisturbed, they can be surprisingly strong. For example, the surface tension of water is
great enough to support the weight of an insect such as a water skipper. Water is the most
cohesive nonmetallic liquid, according to the U.S. Geological Survey.

• Cohesive forces are greatest beneath the surface of the liquid, where the particles are
attracted to each other on all sides. Particles at the surface are more strongly attracted to
the identical particles within the liquid than they are to the surrounding air. This accounts for
the tendency of liquids to form spheres, the shape with the least amount of surface area.
When these liquid spheres are distorted by gravity, they form the classic raindrop shape.
Adhesion
• Adhesion is when forces of attraction exist between different types of particles. Particles of a
liquid will not only be attracted to one another, but they are generally attracted to the particles
that make up the container holding the liquid. Particles of the liquid are drawn up above the
surface level of the liquid at the edges where they are in contact with the sides of the container.

• The combination of cohesive and adhesive forces means that a slight concave curve, known as
the meniscus, exists at the surface of most liquids. The most accurate measurement of the
volume of a liquid in a graduated cylinder will be observed by looking at the volume marks
closest to the bottom of this meniscus.

• Adhesion also accounts for capillary action when a liquid is drawn up into a very narrow tube.
One example of capillary action is when someone collects a sample of blood by touching a tiny
glass tube to the blood droplet on the tip of a pricked finger
Viscosity

• Viscosity is a measure of how much a liquid resists flowing freely. A

liquid that flows very slowly is said to be more viscous than a liquid
that flows easily and quickly. A substance with low viscosity is
considered to be thinner than a substance with higher viscosity, which
is usually thought of as being thicker. For example, honey is more
viscous than water. Honey is thicker than water and flows more
slowly. Viscosity can usually be reduced by heating the liquid. When
heated, the particles of the liquid move faster, allowing the liquid to
flow more easily.
Evaporation

• Because the particles of a liquid are in constant motion, they will

collide with one another, and with the sides of the container. Such
collisions transfer energy from one particle to another. When enough
energy is transferred to a particle at the surface of the liquid, it will
eventually overcome the surface tension holding it to the rest of the
liquid. Evaporation occurs when surface particles gain enough kinetic
energy to escape the system. As the faster particles escape, the
remaining particles have lower average kinetic energy, and the
temperature of the liquid cools. This phenomenon is known as
evaporative cooling.
Volatility

• Volatility can be thought of as how likely a substance will be to vaporize at normal temperatures. Volatility is more often a
property of liquids, but some highly volatile solids may sublime at normal room temperature. Sublimation happens when
a substance passes directly from solid to gas without passing through the liquid state.

• When a liquid evaporates inside a closed container, the particles cannot escape the system. Some of the evaporated
particles will eventually come into contact with the remaining liquid and lose enough of their energy to condense back
into the liquid. When the rate of evaporation and the rate of condensation are the same, there will be no net decrease in
the amount of liquid.

• The pressure exerted by the vapor/liquid equilibrium in the closed container is called the vapor pressure. Increasing the
temperature of the closed system will increase the vapor pressure, according to Purdue University's department of
chemistry. Substances with high vapor pressures can form a high concentration of gas particles above the liquid in a
closed system. This can be a fire hazard if the vapor is flammable. Any small spark, even one occurring from the friction
between the gas particles themselves, can be enough to cause a catastrophic fire or even an explosion. The U.S.
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) requires Material Safety and Data Sheets to give information about
the volatility and flammability of liquids in order to help prevent accidents from occurring.
Gases
• a substance or matter in a state in which it will expand freely to fill the whole of a container, having no fixed shape (unlike a solid) and no
fixed volume (unlike a liquid).
• Gas is a state of matter that has no fixed shape and no fixed volume. Gases have lower density than other states of matter, such as solids
and liquids. There is a great deal of empty space between particles, which have a lot of kinetic energy. The particles move very fast and
collide into one another, causing them to diffuse, or spread out, until they are evenly distributed throughout the volume of the
container.

• When more gas particles enter a container, there is less space for the particles to spread out, and they become compressed. The
particles exert more force on the interior volume of the container. This force is called pressure. There are several units used to express
pressure. Some of the most common are atmospheres (atm), pounds per square inch (psi), millimeters of mercury (mmHg) and pascals
(Pa). The units relate to one another this way: 1 atm = 14.7 psi = 760 mmHg = 101.3 kPa (1,000 pascals).

• Besides pressure, denoted in equations as P, gases have other measurable properties: temperature (T), volume (V) and number of
particles, which is expressed in a mole number (n or mol). In work involving gas temperature, the Kelvin scale is often used.

• Because temperature and pressure vary from place to place, scientists use a standard reference point, called standard temperature and
pressure (STP), in calculations and equations. Standard temperature is the freezing point of water — 32 degrees Fahrenheit (0 degrees
Celsius, or 273.15 Kelvin). Standard pressure is one atmosphere (atm) — the pressure exerted by the atmosphere on Earth at sea level.
Gas laws
• Temperature, pressure, amount and volume of a gas are
interdependent, and many scientists have developed laws to describe
the relationships among them.

• Boyle’s law
• Charles' law (Gay-Lussac's law)
• Ideal gas law
Boyle’s law
• Boyle's law is named after Robert Boyle, who first stated it in 1662. Boyle's
law states that if temperature is held constant, volume and pressure have
an inverse relationship; that is, as volume increases, pressure decreases,
according to the University of California, Davis' ChemWiki. Increasing the
amount of space available will allow the gas particles to spread farther
apart, but this reduces the number of particles available to collide with the
container, so pressure decreases. Decreasing the volume of the container
forces the particles to collide more often, so pressure is increased. A good
example of this is when you fill a tire with air. As more air goes in, the gas
molecules get packed together, reducing their volume. As long as the
temperature stays the same, the pressure increases.
Charles law (Gay-Lussac's law)
• In 1802, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, a French chemist and physicist referenced data gathered by his
countryman, Jacque Charles, in a paper describing the direct relationship between the temperature and
volume of a gas kept at a constant pressure. Most texts refer to this as Charles' law, but a few call it Gay-
Lussac's law, or even the Charles Gay-Lussac law.

• This law states that the volume and temperature of a gas have a direct relationship: As temperature
increases, volume increases, when pressure is held constant. Heating a gas increases the kinetic energy
of the particles, causing the gas to expand. In order to keep the pressure constant, the volume of the
container must be increased when a gas is heated.

• This law explains why it is an important safety rule that you should never heat a closed container.
Increasing temperature without increasing the volume available to accommodate the expanding gas
means that pressure builds up inside the container and may cause it to explode. The law also explains
why a turkey thermometer pops out when the turkey is done: The volume of air trapped under the
plunger increases as the temperature inside the turkey climbs.
Avogadro's number
• In 1811, Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro proposed the idea that
equal volumes of gas at the same temperature and pressure will have
an equal number of particles, regardless of their chemical nature and
physical properties.
Ideal gas constant

• The kinetic energy per unit of temperature of one mole of a gas is a

constant value, sometimes referred to as the Regnault constant,
named after the French chemist Henri Victor Regnault. It is
abbreviated by the letter R. Regnault studied the thermal properties
of matter and discovered that Boyle's law was not perfect. When the
temperature of a substance nears its boiling point, the expansion of
the gas particles is not exactly uniform.  
Ideal gas law

• Avogadro's Number, the ideal gas constant, and both Boyle's and
Charles' laws combine to describe a theoretical ideal gas in which all
particle collisions are absolutely equal. The laws come very close to
describing the behavior of most gases, but there are very tiny
mathematical deviations due to differences in actual particle size and
tiny intermolecular forces in real gases. Nevertheless, these important
laws are often combined into one equation known as the ideal gas
law. Using this law, you can find the value of any of the other variables
— pressure, volume, number or temperature — if you know the value
of the other three.
Two types of change

Physical change Chemical change

Physical and chemical changes
Physical changes
What is a physical change
• Physical changes are changes affecting the form of a 
chemical substance, but not its chemical composition. Physical
changes are used to separate mixtures into their component 
compounds, but can not usually be used to separate compounds into 
chemical elements or simpler compounds.
What are Physical changes?
• Physical changes involve states of matter and energy. No new
substance is created during a physical change, although the matter
takes a different form. The size, shape, and color of matter may
change. Physical changes occur when substances are mixed but don't
chemically react.
When does physical changes occur?
• Physical changes occur when objects or substances undergo a change
that does not change their chemical composition. This contrasts with
the concept of chemical change in which the composition of a
substance changes or one or more substances combine or break up to
form new substances. In general a physical change is reversible using
physical means. For example, salt dissolved in water can be recovered
by allowing the water to evaporate.
What does physical change involve?
• A physical change involves a change in physical properties. Examples
of physical properties include melting, transition to a gas, change of
strength, change of durability, changes to crystal form, textural
change, shape, size, color, volume and density.
Examples of physical changes
• An example of a physical change is the process of tempering steel to
form a knife blade. A steel blank is repeatedly heated and hammered
which changes the hardness of the steel, its flexibility and its ability to
maintain a sharp edge.
Reversible and irevesible
• Many physical changes also involve the rearrangement of atoms most
noticeably in the formation of crystals. Many chemical changes are
irreversible, and many physical changes are reversible, but
reversibility is not a certain criterion for classification. Although
chemical changes may be recognized by an indication such as odor,
color change, or production of a gas, every one of these indicators can
result from physical change.
Examples of physical changes
• Heating and cooling, magnetism, crystalisation, mixtures solutions
and alloys.
Heating and cooling
• Change of state (or form) in water is a physical change. On heating,
ice melts, and water evaporates. On cooling, the water vapour cools
to form water and water freezes to form ice. This is a reversible
change where the form of water changes on reversing the conditions.
• Many elements and some compounds change from solids to liquids
and from liquids to gases when heated and the reverse when cooled.
Some substances such as iodine and carbon dioxide go directly from
solid to gas in a process called sublimation.
Magnetism
• Magnetism is a class of physical attributes that are mediated by
magnetic fields. Electric currents and the magnetic moments of
elementary particles give rise to a magnetic field, which acts on other
currents and magnetic moments.
• Ferro-magnetic materials can become magnetic. The process is
reversible and does not affect the chemical composition.
Crystallization
• A physical process of obtaining large crystals of a pure substance
from its solution is known as crystallization. Crystallization is a
physical change.
Mixture solution
• A solution is a special type of mixture where one or more of the
ingredients change their physical properties.

• Most mixtures are a physical change. Mixing salt and water is a

physical change because you can separate it later. Chemical changes
on the other hand create a new substance.
Alloys
• Most alloys are created to change the elemental metals' physical
properties, such as conductivity, density, ductility, hardness, luster,
malleability, melting point, tensile strength, and/or chemical
properties, such as resistance to corrosion. Alloys often exhibit
increased strength and hardness.
• Both physical and chemical changes can occur.
Chemical changes
• Chemical changes occur when a substance combines with another to form a new substance,
called chemical synthesis or, alternatively, chemical decomposition into two or more different
substances. These processes are called chemical reactions and, in general, are not reversible
except by further chemical reactions. Some reactions produce heat and are called exothermic
reactions and others may require heat to enable the reaction to occur, which are called
endothermic reactions. Understanding chemical changes is a major part of the science of
chemistry.

• When chemical reactions occur, the atoms are rearranged and the reaction is accompanied by
an energy change as new products are generated. An example of a chemical change is the
reaction between sodium and water to produce sodium hydroxide and hydrogen. So much
energy is released that the hydrogen gas released spontaneously burns in the air. This is an
example of a chemical change because the end products are chemically different from the
substances before the chemical reaction.
Types in chemical changes
• Inorganic, inorganic, Biochemical change
Inorganic
• Inorganic chemistry describes the reactions of elements and
compounds that, in general, do not involve carbon. The changes
typically take place in laboratories, or on a larger scale in heavy
industries.

• Typical types of change include neutralization (mixing an acid with a

base, resulting in water and salt), oxidization including combustion,
redox reactions etc
Organic changes
• Organic chemistry is concerned with the chemistry of carbon and the
elements and compound with which it reacts. These compounds
include mineral oil and all of its products and much of the output of
industries manufacturing pharmaceuticals, paints, detergents,
cosmetics, fuels etc. Typical examples of organic chemical changes
include cracking heavy hydrocarbons at an oil refinery to create more
gasoline from crude oil, as gasoline is in higher demand than the
heavier hydrocarbons, such as residual fuel oils. Other reactions
include, methylation, condensation reactions, polymerisation,
halogenation etc
Biochemical changes
• Biochemistry deals with the chemistry of the growth and activity of living
organisms. It is a chemistry where most reactions are controlled by complex
proteins called enzymes and are moderated and limited by hormones. The
chemistry is always highly complex and is still not fully understood.
Decomposition of organic material is also within the scope of biochemistry
although in this case it is the growth and activity of fungi, bacteria and other
micro-organisms that is involved. Typical types of change include the
processes involved in photosynthesis, a process in which carbon dioxide and
water are changed into sugars and oxygen by plants, digestion in which
energy rich materials are used by organisms to grow and move, the Krebs
cycle which liberates energy from stored reserves, protein synthesis which
enables organisms to grow using processes controlled by RNA, etc.
References
• https://www.livescience.com/46946-solids.html
• https://www.livescience.com/46972-liquids.html
• https://www.livescience.com/53304-gases.html
• www.thoughtco.com/examples-of-physical-changes-608336
• www.embibe.com/exams/physical-and-chemical-changes/
• byjus.com/chemistry/physical-change/
• www.youtube.com/watch?v=yIJ2qnUOOwQ
• cassidyjohns.webs.com/documents/S.Zaucha_Curriculum%20Project.pdf
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_change
• www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-chemical-change-604902