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English For
Academic
and Professional
Purposes
Text Structures
• Text structure refers to how the information within a written
text is organized. Text types depends on the primary purpose
of a text and what information the author introduces in the
text. As authors write a text to communicate an idea, they
will use a structure that goes along with the idea(Meyer,
1985).
• Learning to recognize the structure text may help you focus
on the important information in a particular passage and can
serve as a foundation for attaining the other text structure
objectives.
• The following are the nine main informational text structures:
• 1. Definition 6. Comparison and Contrast
• 2. Description 7. Enumeration
• Recount of a sequence 8. Classification
• 4. Cause-effect 9. Thesis-Evidence
• 5. Problem-Solution
1. Definition
Definition text structure is the method of identifying a
given term and making its meaning clear. Its main purpose
is to clarify and explain concepts, ideas and issues by
answering the question, “What does it mean?”
Further, definition is the dominant text structure of Social
Sciences Texts and Literature and the Arts.
Some words that signal definition texts are:

• the verb is/are, for example, can be, is defined as, means;
• words that refer to composition such as contain, make-up,
involves;
• words that suggest a likeness such as appears to be, refers to;
• general words that refer to a class or genus, such as form of
(exercise), a branch of (engineering), a type of (worship), a kind of
ship, etc.
The sample above uses the following signal words: is and mean.
A modified wheel can represent a definition text. At the center of the
wheel is the main topic of the article and forming the spokes of the wheel
are the details about the concept.
2. Description
A descriptive text gives concrete details about
appearance, characteristics, and actions.
This type of text structure is common to Business
Texts and Literature and the Arts.
 Some words that signal description are:

• adjectives to describe size (example: huge, small, or numbers

that specify dimensions)
• shape (example: spherical, octagon), position (middle, top)
• texture (example: rough, smooth, velvety)
• color (example: verdant green, onyx-like)
• adverbs to qualify an action or thing (example: evenly, roughly,
consistently)
• adjective phrases (example: a 10-gallon container, a four-day
weekend, 2- day-old chicks)
The sample paragraph above uses the following descriptive words: beautiful,
impressive, delicate, wonderfully streamlined, rapidly, smooth, constant, enormous,
large, typical, and inflammatory Visually, the descriptive text may appear like this:
3. Recount of a Sequence
A recount of a sequence is a chronological narration of a historical
period, a sequential description of a process or a procedure.
Recount of a sequence text structure is common to Social Sciences
Texts.
Some signal words are:
• First, second, now, before, after, then, finally, while, meanwhile,
during
• Other expressions of time duration describing the steps in a
process or procedure
• Dates may also be considered as language cues
4. Cause and Effect
A cause and effect text presents reasons why a situation is
obtained. Though logically the cause comes before the
result, in academic writing it is the effect that is usually
presented first, perhaps to achieve a more dramatic effect.
Cause-effect text structure is a common text structure for
Social Sciences Texts and Literature and the Arts.
Signal Words for Cause and Effect
1. To Show Causes-the first cause (second, third),
the first reason (second, third), yet another
factor, because of, is caused by, due to, and a
cause of

2. To Show Effects- one important effect, another

result, a third outcome, as a result, consequently,
explanation for, accordingly, then, next, therefore,
thus, so, and so that
In the example, the expressions that indicate cause are: first cause, another
factor and the third and final factor. The effect is stated at the very beginning of the
paragraph: lead them to give up on their education and drop out of school.
5. Problem and Solution
• Problem and solution text structure shows the
development of a problem and the solution(s) to the
problem. The author takes a problem, clarifies or
explains the problem and suggests one or more
solutions to the problem.
• Problem and solution text structure is a common
structure for Mathematics Texts and Business Texts.
Signal words which may indicate problem and solution text
structure are:
• Propose • the problem is • if, so,
• Solution • the question is • perhaps,
• answer, • the dilemma is • possibly,
• issue, • , the puzzle is, • a solution is,
• problem, • as a consequence, • solutions are,
• problematic, • this led to, • This resulted in,
• remedy, • so that, • One answer is and
• prevention, • nevertheless, • therefore
• fix, • accordingly,
• since, • one reason for the
problem,
A problem-solution text can be represented in various ways; the number of
boxes may be adjusted to fit the number of problems and solutions
presented in the text.
For instance, if one problem has three solutions, the text can look like
this:
On the other hand, it can look like this if the outcome of the solution
attempted is emphasized in the text. Several boxes can be drawn if several
solutions are tried, each one with a different result.
6. Comparison and contrast
• Compare and contrast is a text structure or pattern of organization where
• the similarities and differences of two or more things are explored.
• It is important to remember that with the compare and contrast text
structure the text should be discussing similarities and differences.
• If the text only discusses similarities, it is only comparing. Likewise, if it only
discusses ways that the things are different, it
• is only contrasting.
• The text must do both to be considered compare and contrast.
• This structure is commonly used for Mathematics and Social Science texts.
Signal words found in a compare-contrast paragraph are
the following:
Compare
same as, alike, not only…
but also, either…or,
likewise, similarly, similar
to, compared with, as well
as, resemble, like and both
Contrast
Contrast-different from, in
contrast, although, more
than, less than, instead of,
however, on the other
hand, on the contrary, as
opposed to, but not, while,
unless,
unlike and neither
A Venn diagram can represent the sample passage above since what are
contrasted share some common characteristic, therefore, diagram A shows
the characteristics unique to television, and B shows the unique
characteristics of book. Meanwhile, the two circles intersect represents the
commonalities of televisions and books.
7. Enumeration
An enumeration is a listing, as in a list of parts, of
characteristics, of examples etc. It is the common
text structure for Social Science Texts and Literature
and the Arts.
Some signal words that indicate enumeration are to start with, first, second,
in addition, next, then, another, finally, also, for instance, for example, in fact
etc. Enumeration often appears as numbered list or a bulleted text.
The above paragraph can be presented as a list:

Different types of vehicles

• eco-friendly cars
• multiple mini-vans
• luxury cars
8. Classification
Classification text structure is an organizational
strategy whereby authors arrange groups of persons,
places, things, or abstract ideas according to a common.
Some examples are types of personalities, groupings in a
school, species of animals, categories of films, and
television shows.
Some language cues are: there are several types/kinds of, a part
of, an example of, groups/kinds/ways/types/classes of, another
kind of, and divided into.
The sample above can be summarized
visually this way
9. Thesis-Evidence
Primarily to serve the purpose of arguing a point/position or
interpretation, the Thesis-Evidence text organization or thought
pattern may be arranged deductively (general statement or thesis
followed by supporting details) or inductively (details from which
an inference or thesis is drawn).
Some words that signal this thought pattern are:
• some verbs like assert, claim, prove/show that…, support,
allege that nouns like evidence, proof, argument
Let’s try this Problem - solution

Sarah was frequently absent from school and missed

a lot of work. Sarah’s teacher knew something
needed to be done to fix Sarah’s attendance, so she
decided to call Sarah’s parents in for a conference.
When Sarah’s teacher explained the importance of
attending school regularly, her parents realized the
issue and made sure she attended school every
single day for the rest of the year
End of the discussion