The Carbohydrates

Stefania Widya S., S.Gz., MPH

Outline
• The Chemist’s View of Carbohydrates
• Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
• Glucose in the Body
• Health Effects and Recommended Intakes of Sugars
• Alternative Sweeteners
• Health Effects and Recommended Intakes of Starch and Fibers
Carbs in Our Daily Life
The Chemist’s View of Carbohydrates
• The dietary carbohydrate family includes:
Monosaccharides: single sugars
Disaccharides: sugars composed of pairs of monosaccharides
Polysaccharides: large molecules composed of chains of
monosaccharides
• To understand the structure of carbohydrates, look at the units of
which they are made. The monosaccharides most important in
nutrition each contain 6 carbon atoms, 12 hydrogens, and 6 oxygens
(written in shorthand as C6H12O6).
Chemical Bond of the Glucose
Type of Carbs
 Glucose

Monosaccharides
• Also known as dextrose
• Naturally found in food in the form of disaccharides or
polysaccharides
• Single form can be found in the human body as “blood
sugar” (physiological sugar) that used as main energy
source
• Main product of complex carbohydrates hydrolysis in
digestion system

Fructose
• Also known as Levulosa
• The sweetest sugar
• Natural source : fruit, honey, hydrolized sucrose
• Also called “fruit sugar”
• Transformed into glucose in the liver

Galactose
• Cannot be found freely in the nature
• Result of lactose digestion (dairy product)
• Transformed into glucose in the liver
Find the difference and similarity of
monosaccharide below
 Disaccharides
“The three disaccharides (maltose, sucrose, and lactose) are pairs of
monosaccharides, each containing a glucose paired with one of the
three monosaccharides”

= glucose + fructose = glucose + galactose = glucose + glucose

How to Make Disaccharides?
How to Break Disaccharides?
Karakteristik disakarida
• Disaccharides – two linked sugar units
• Sukrosa: glukosa + fruktosa
• Dikenal sebagai gula meja  “table sugar”
• Terutama terdapat pd tebu/molases, bit

• Laktosa: Glukosa + galaktosa

• Gula utama dlm susu  “milk sugar”
• Sumber: susu & dairy products
• Laktosa pada susu sapi: 6,8 g/100 ml; ASI: 4,8 g/100 ml
• Dicerna lebih lambat
• Laktosa terhidrolisa  Efek laksatif
 diare, kram perut

• Maltosa: glukosa + glukosa

• Tidak terdapat di alam
• Mrpk produk pencernaan pati
Taraf kemanisan Gula
Gula Taraf kemanisan
Fruktosa 173
Sukrosa 100
Glukosa 74
Galaktosa & maltosa 32
Laktosa 16
Polysaccharides
• the polysaccharides contain many glucose units and, in some cases, a
few other monosaccharides strung together. Three types of
polysaccharides are important in nutrition: glycogen, starches, and fi
bers.
• polysaccharides: compounds composed of many monosaccharides
linked together. An intermediate string of three to ten
monosaccharides is an oligosaccharide.
Glycogen
• Glycogen is found to only a limited extent in meats and not at all in plants.
For this reason, food is not a significant source of this carbohydrate.
• Glycogen performs an important role in the body: it stores glucose for
future use.
• Glycogen is made of many glucose molecules linked together in highly
branched chains.
• When the hormonal message “release energy” arrives at the glycogen
storage sites in a liver or muscle cell, enzymes respond by attacking the
many branches of glycogen simultaneously, making a surge of glucose
available.
Starches
• plant cells store glucose as starches—long, branched or unbranched
chains of hundreds or thousands of glucose molecules linked together
• These giant starch molecules are packed side by side in grains such as
wheat or rice, in root crops and tubers such as yams and potatoes,
and in legumes such as peas and beans.
• When you eat the plant, your body hydrolyzes the starch to glucose
and uses the glucose for its own energy purposes.
Chemical Structure of Glycogen and Starch
Fibers
• Dietary fibers are the structural parts of plants and thus are found in
all plant-derived foods—vegetables, fruits, whole grains, and legumes.
• Dietary fibers differ from starches in that the bonds between their
monosaccharides cannot be broken down by digestive enzymes in the
body.
• For this reason, dietary fi bers are often described as nonstarch
polysaccharides.
Fibers Classification
Soluble
• form gels (viscous), and are
easily digested by bacteria in
the colon (fermentable).
• Commonly found in oats,
barley, legumes, and citrus
fruits
• soluble fibers are most often
associated with protecting
against heart disease and
diabetes by lowering blood
cholesterol and glucose
levels
Insoluble
• Do not form gels
(nonviscous), and are less
readily fermented.
• Found mostly in whole
grains (bran) and vegetables
• Promote bowel movements,
alleviate constipation, and
prevent diverticular disease.
Resistance Starch
• escape digestion and
absorption in the small
intestine due to the body’s
efficiency in digesting
starches and the food’s
physical properties.
• Resistant starch is common
in whole or partially milled
grains, legumes, and just-
ripened bananas. Cooked
potatoes, pasta, and rice
that have been chilled also
contain resistant starch.
support a healthy colon
Digestion
of Carbohydrates
Absorption of Carbohydrates
Glucose in the Body
Glucose homeostatis in the body was regulated by these hormones :
• insulin : a hormone secreted by special cells in the pancreas in response to (among
other things) increased blood glucose concentration. The primary role of insulin is
to control the transport of glucose from the bloodstream into the muscle and fat
cells.
• glucagon : a hormone that is secreted by special cells in the pancreas in response
to low blood glucose concentration and elicits release of glucose from liver
glycogen stores.
• Epinephrin : a hormone of the adrenal gland that modulates the stress response;
formerly called adrenaline. When administered by injection, epinephrine
counteracts anaphylactic shock by opening the airways and maintaining heartbeat
and blood pressure.
Glucose Homeostatis
Over consumed = diabetes
• blood glucose rises after a meal
and remains above normal levels
because insulin is either
inadequate or ineffective
Under consumed = hypoglycemia
• In healthy people, blood glucose
rises after eating and then gradually
falls back into the normal range.
• When blood glucose drop below
normal, a person would experience
the symptoms of hypoglycemia:
weakness, rapid heartbeat,
sweating, anxiety, hunger, and
trembling.
Glycemic Response
• The glycemic response refers to how quickly glucose is absorbed after a
person eats, how high blood glucose rises, and how quickly it returns to
normal.
• Slow absorption, a modest rise in blood glucose, and a smooth return to
normal are desirable (a low glycemic response).
• Fast absorption, a surge in blood glucose, and an overreaction that plunges
glucose below normal are less desirable (a high glycemic response).
• Different foods have different effects on blood glucose.
• To aid their choices, they may be able to use the glycemic index, a method
of classifying foods according to their potential to raise blood glucose.
Health Effect of Sugar
• In moderate amounts, sugars add pleasure to meals without harming
health.

• added sugars
sugars and syrups used as an ingredient in the processing and
preparation of foods such as breads, cakes, beverages, jellies, and ice
cream as well as sugars eaten separately or added to foods at the table.
Added Sugar
Health Effect of Sugar: Nutrient Deficiency
• Empty-kcalorie foods that contain lots of added sugars such as cakes,
candies, and sodas provide the body with glucose and energy, but
few, if any, other nutrients.

• By comparison, foods such as whole grains, vegetables, legumes, and

fruits that contain some natural sugars and lots of starches and fibers
also provide protein, vitamins, and minerals.
Health Effect of Sugar: Dental Caries
• Sugars from foods and from the breakdown of starches in the mouth can contribute to tooth decay.
Bacteria in the mouth ferment the sugars and, in the process, produce an acid that erodes tooth
enamel (see Figure 4-14), causing dental caries, or tooth decay.
• depends on how long foods stay in the mouth.
• Sticky foods stay on the teeth longer and continue to yield acid longer than foods that are readily
cleared from the mouth.
• ByAnother concern is how often people eat sugar. Bacteria produce acid for 20 to 30 minutes after
each exposure. Likewise, slowly sipping a sugary sports beverage may be more harmful than drinking
quickly and clearing the mouth of sugar.
• Nonsugary foods can help remove sugar from tooth surfaces; hence, it is better to eat sugar with
meals than between meals.
• Foods such as milk and cheese may be particularly helpful in protecting against dental caries by
neutralizing acids, stimulating salivary flow, inhibiting bacterial activity, and promoting
remineralization of damaged enamel
Dietary Recommendation of Sugar
• Estimating the added sugars in a diet is not always easy for consumers.
• Food labels list the total grams of sugar a food provides, but this total reflects both
added sugars and those occurring naturally in foods.
• To help estimate sugar and energy intakes accurately, the list in the margin hows
the amounts of concentrated sweets that are equivalent to 1 teaspoon of white
sugar.
• These sugars all provide about 5 grams of carbohydrate and about 20 kcalories per
teaspoon. Some are lower (16 kcalories for table sugar), and others are higher (22
kcalories for honey), but a 20-kcalorie average is an acceptable approximation
• The World Health Organization (WHO) and the Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO) suggest restricting consumption of added sugars to less than 10 percent of
total energy
White Sugar Equivalent
• 1 tsp white sugar =
1 tsp brown sugar
1 tsp candy
1 tsp corn syrup
1 tsp honey
tsp jam or jelly
1½ oz carbonated soda
1 tbs ketchup
Alternative Sweetener
• Artificial sweeteners are sometimes called nonnutritive sweeteners
because they provide virtually no energy
• Considering that all substances are toxic at some dose, it is little
surprise that large doses of artificial sweeteners (or their
components)
• or metabolic by-products) may have adverse effects
• nonnutritive sweeteners: sweeteners that yield no energy (or
insignificant energy in the case of aspartame).
Sugar Alcohol
• sugar alcohols: sugarlike compounds that can be derived from fruits or
commercially produced from dextrose; also called polyols.
• Sugar alcohols evoke a low glycemic response. The body absorbs sugar alcohols
slowly; consequently, they are slower to enter the bloodstream than other sugars.
• Common side effects include intestinal gas, abdominal discomfort, and diarrhea.
• Examples are maltitol, mannitol, sorbitol, xylitol, isomalt, and lactitol.
• Sugar alcohols do provide kcalories, but fewer than their carbohydrate cousins, the
sugars.
• Because sugar alcohols yield energy, they are sometimes referred to as nutritive
sweeteners.
Health Effects of Fibers
• Heart diseases
whole grains and soluble fi bers may protect against heart disease and stroke,
by lowering blood pressure, improving blood lipids, and reducing inflammation
• Foods rich in soluble fi bers (such as oat bran, barley, and legumes) lower blood
cholesterol by binding with bile acids in the GI tract and thereby increasing their
excretion.
• Consequently, the liver must use its cholesterol to make new bile acids. In
addition, the bacterial by-products of fiber fermentation in the colon also
inhibit cholesterol synthesis in the liver. The net result is lower blood
cholesterol
• Consuming 5 to 10 g of soluble fiber daily reduces blood cholesterol by 3 to 5%.
Health Effects of Fibers
• Diabetes
When soluble fibers trap nutrients and delay their transit through the
GI tract, glucose absorption is slowed, which helps to prevent the
glucose surge and rebound that seem to be associated with diabetes
onset.
• GI Health
Insoluble fi bers such as cellulose (as in cereal brans, fruits, and
vegetables) increase stool weight, easing passage, and reduce transit
time. In this way, the fibers help to alleviate or prevent constipation.
Health Effects of Fibers
• Cancer
Fibers may help prevent colon cancer by diluting, binding, and rapidly removing
potential cancer-causing agents from the colon. In addition, soluble fibers
stimulate bacterial fermentation of resistant starch and fiber in the colon, a
process that produces short-chain fatty acids that lower the pH. These small fat
molecules activate cancer-killing enzymes and inhibit inflammation in the colon
• Weight management
Foods rich in fi bers tend to be low in fat and added sugars and can therefore
prevent weight gains and promote weight loss by delivering less energy per bite.
In addition, as fibers absorb water from the digestive juices, they swell, creating
feelings of fullness, lowering food intake, and delaying hunger
Recommended Intake of Fiber
• The FDA set the Daily Value or fiber at 25 grams, rounding up from
the recommended 11.5 grams per 1000 kcalories for a 2000-kcalorie
intake.
• The DRI recommendation is slightly higher, at 14 grams per 1000-
kcalorie intake—roughly 25 to 35 grams of dietary fiber daily.
Recommendation of Total Carbohydrate
Intakes

• The DRI suggests that carbohydrates provide about half (45 to 65

percent) of the energy requirement.
• the RDA ♦ for carbohydrate, which is set at 130 grams per day, based
on the average minimum amount of glucose used by the brain.
Penugasan
Buatlah makalah mengenai karbohidrat yang berisi :
1. Pencernaan karbohidrat (wajib untuk semua kelompok)
2. Topik pilihan karbohidrat :
a. Jenis karbohidrat => lakukan survey pasar dan buat pemetaan mengenai jenis dan jumlah karbohidrat pada
produk pangan kemasan
b. Gula sederhana => lakukan survey pasar dan buat pemetaan jumlah dan jenis gula tambahan dalam produk
minuman kemasan
c. Pemanis buatan => lakukan survey pasar dan buat pemetaan jumlah dan jenis pemanis buatan pada produk
pangan kemasan “sugar free”
d. Serat => lakukan survey pasar dan buat pemetaan jumlah dan jenis serat buatan pada produk pangan kemasan
e. Efek kesehatan gula => buat mind mapping alur gula menyebabkan karies gigi, sertakan jurnal pendukung
mengenai efek konsumsi gula terhadap karies gigi
f. Efek kesehatan serat => buat mind mapping alur serat larut air mencegah kolesterol, sertakan jurnal
pendukung mengenai efek konsumsi serat larut terhadap jumlah kolesterol
g. Efek kesehatan serat => buat mind mapping alur serat tidak larut mencegah kenaikan berat badan, sertakan
jurnal pendukung mengenai serat tidak larut terhadap berat badan
h. Indeks glikemik => lakukan studi literatur mengenai metode penentuan indeks glikemik dan buat pemetaan
bahan makanan berdasarkan kadar indeks glikemiknya. Sertakan jurnal pendukung mengenai indeks glikemik
pada makanan dengan kontrol glukosa tubuh