1.

Drilling Fundamentals -
Geology, Temperature, and
Pressure

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 Topics
● Geology
 Classification of Rocks
 Formation of Rocks
● Temperature
 Temperature and Temperature Gradient
 Importance of Down hole Temperature Data
● Pressure
 Types of Pressures
 Fundamental Pressure equations
 Example Problems 2
Geology

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 3 Classification of Rocks
IGNEOU SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC
S
Rock-forming Source of

Rocks under high

material

Melting of rocks in hot, Weathering and

temperatures
deep crust and erosion of rocks
and pressures in
upper mantle exposed at surface
deep crust

Recrystallization in
process

Crystallization Sedimentation, burial

solid state of new
(Solidification of melt) and lithification
minerals

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 Igneous Rocks
Basalt
Gabbro

Examples

Rhyolite Granite
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Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
Breccia Conglomerate

Examples

Sandstone Shale

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 Metamorphic Rocks
Examples Gneiss

Mica schist
Slate

Marble Quartzite
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The Rock Cycle

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 Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks have three sources.

1. Clastic - formed from rock particles and skeletal remains.

Example; sandstone, shale.

2. Chemical – formed by deposition during the evaporation

of water. Example; salts.

3. Biological – formed from the remains of plant and animal

life. Example; coal, coral.
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 Formation of Clastic Rock
There are six processes for formation of clastic
sedimentary rock
1. Erosion - Existing rocks are broken down.
2. Transport - Wind or water move the rock fragments.
3. Deposition - Rock fragments are laid down in beds.
4. Compaction - Burial decreases the sediment volume.
5. Cementation - Minerals grow in the spaces between grains.
6. Diagenesis - Chemical changes to fragments to form rock.
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Relative Abundance of
Sedimentary Rocks
● Shales, dominant
sedimentary rock, 75%
of the total.
● Sandstones,
conglomerates, 11% of
the total.
● Limestones, dolomites
12%
● All others about 1%. 11
Pressure and Temperature

● Pressure and Temperature are forms

of stored energy

● Both affects the physical and chemical

properties of the rock and the fluids it
contained

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Temperature

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Temperature and Temperature Gradient

 Temperature increases with depth; hence heat

flows from center of the earth by conduction
 Some rocks are better conductors than others
 Temperature is measured by thermometers
 In general, TD = Ts + G x TVD
– Ts = f(latitude) - 70oF (Gulf Coast) & 10oF (Alaska)
– Normal temperature gradient, G = 1.6oF/100-ft
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 Importance of Downhole
Temperature Data
 Beneficial to fluid recovery - reduces µ
 However, not beneficial to drilling operations
– Higher temperature has adverse effects on drilling
hardware and materials
– Mud treating chemicals and clays become ineffective or
unstable at high temperature; causes cement thickening
 In general, below 15,000-ft, many problems are
encountered while drilling due to high temperature
and high pressure 15
 Uses of Temperature Data
 To locate hole enlargements in shale sections
 To determine the top of cement fill-ups
 To locate thief zones that cause loss circulation
 To locate gas bearing zones
 Gas expansion causes cooling
 To locate casing leaks or to detect gas leaks
 To aid correlation of strata that have different
specific heats and thermal conductivity
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Determination of Top Cement Fill-Ups
● The top of cement fill-ups is the
point of abrupt temperature
change at the top of the casing.
That is, the position of heating
that accompanies the setting of
cement is used to locate the top of
the cement behind the casing.

● This technique must be performed

within 12-hours of the cement job

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Relationship Between Geothermal
Gradient and Drilling Fluid
Temperature Circulation Gradient
● Normal temperature gradients
seem to be about 1.6oF/100 ft,
although variations occur in
various areas. Temperature in
an area is usually a linear
function of depth. Although the
gradients vary in different
areas, any given area typically
exhibits linear behavior.
● While drilling a well, there are
two types of gradients -
geothermal gradient and
drilling-mud circulation
gradient. 18
Pressure

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 Pressure
 Major sources of pressure are earthquakes
 Compression and tension effects on rocks
 Minor sources are tides, seismic sea waves,
chemical reactions (radioactive decay &
biochemical)
 Units of pressure are
– US : psig, psia
– SI: N/m2 or Pa; 1 N/m2 = 1 Pa
– Another common unit is atmosphere
• 1 atmosphere = 14.7 psia 20
 Types of Pressure
 Pressure can be normal, abnormal, subnormal
– All pressures (except abnormal) can be measured
with self-contained pressure bombs
 Static or Circulation
– Static is due to fluid at rest
– Circulation includes frictional pressure loss due to
viscosity of the fluid
 Total overburden pressure (Poverburden)
 Fracture pressure/fracture gradient
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 Types of Pressure
 Fracture pressure/fracture gradient
– This is a pressure at which a rock fails
– Fp < Poverburden
– uncontrolled breakdown of a rock leads to
loss circulation  a kick  blowout

 Effective stress
– = confining pressure - pore pressure
– = confining pressure - overburden stress
– Pc = s - Pp
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Normal Pore Pressure
• Assume all formations
are permeable vertically.

• Fluid in pores becomes

more saline with depth
so gradient increases.

• Normal pore pressure at

any depth = depth x
average fluid gradient
above. 23
Abnormal Pore Pressure
• Pore pressure can be
different to the normal
pressure for the depth.
• Two conditions are both
necessary for the
development of
abnormal pressure
1. Impermeable barrier
above.
2. Mechanism causing
pressure change. 24
 Normal Pressure vs. Abnormal
Pressure
Question: normal pore pressure gradient = 0.465 psi/ft
at 5,500-ft. What is the pressure at 5000-ft? Is the
pressure normal or abnormal?
Solution:
 Pressure at 5,500’ = 2,950 psi.
 Normal pressure = 5500 x 0.465 = 2558 psi.
Since this pressure is lower than 2950 psi, the
pressure is abnormal.
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 Overpressure Prediction
While Planning
 Overpressure predictions
are determined from the
following:
1. Offset well data.
2. Seismic interpretation.

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Overpressure Detection While Drilling

Overpressure detection from the following:

1. Connection gas trends (reducing overbalance).
2. Drilling rate trends (reducing overbalance).
3. Seismic while drilling (changes in Δ t).
4. Resistivity while drilling (RAB tool, porosity changes).
5. Mud conductivity (formation fluids entering the mud).
6. Shale cuttings density (compaction trend)
7. Influx into the well (kick).
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 Fundamental Pressure Equations
For liquids
 P = 0.433xhxS = 0.052xhxG (psi)
– h is ft, S = specific gravity, G is in lbm/gal
For gases
 P2 = P1xe(0.01875xGxh/ZavgxTavg) (psi)
– G is gas gravity, h is ft,Tavg is in oR
Rule of thumb equation for gas
 P2 = P1 + 0.25 x (P1/100)x(h/100) (psi)
Total overburden pressure
 P = 0.433xhxSb = 0.433xh[(1-)Sm +  xSf)] (psi)
– h is ft, Sb, Sm,Sf are bulk, matrix, & the fluid specific
gravity 28
 Example 1
A protective string of casing was set and cemented at the depth of
3,000 ft. A blowout preventer was mounted on top of the casing to seal
the annular space between the casing and the drill pipe. The drilling
fluid at this time weighs 9.2 lbm/gal (ppg). Assuming that the formation
can only hold 70% of the theoretical overburden pressure, how much
pressure can be held against the well by the blowout preventer?

Solution:
Assumed bottomhole breakdown pressure at 3,000 ft
= (0.70)(1 psi/ft)(3,000 ft) = 2,100 psi
Hydrostatic mud pressure
= (0.052)(9.2 lbm/gal)(3,000 ft) = 1,435 psi
Pressure that can be held by blowout preventer
= 2,100 psi - 1,435 psi = 665 psi. 29
 Example 2
A formation is to be hydraulically fractured at the depth of 9,000
ft. The fracturing fluid has a specific gravity of 0.85. If the
formation breaks down at 80% of the theoretical overburden
pressure, what pump pressure will be required for the
breakdown?

Solution
Expected formation breakdown pressure
= (0.80)(1 psi/ft)(9,000 ft) = 7,200 psi
Hydrostatic pressure of the fracturing fluid
= (0.433 psi/ft) (0.85) (9,000 ft) = 3,312 psi
Required pump pressure = expected formation breakdown
pressure - hydrostatic pressure
= 7,200 psi - 3,312 psi = 3,888 psi 30
 Example 3
A formation has a pressure of 3720 psi at 8,000-ft. The
operator desires to have a safety allowance of 600 psi
opposite the formation. What is the required density of
the drilling mud?

Solution:
Rearranging the Equation P = 0.052 x G x h
we have,
G = P/(0.052 x h) (lbm/gal)
P = formation pressure + the safety allowance
= 3720 + 600 = 4320 psi
G = 4320/(0.052 x 8,000) = 10.4 lbm/gal
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