NAT U R E

AND
P R O PAGAT I O N
OF LIGHT
Prepared by:
John Rey Esaga
Mary Jane Lubrico
 1 Explain the laws of reflection and refraction

2 Visualize total internal reflection in the glass

Appreciate the phenomena responsible for rainbows
OBJECTIVES: 3 and blue
skies
4 Solve problems involving TIR and polarization
a. The Nature of Light
 The earliest scientific theories of the nature of light were
proposed around the end of the 17th century. In 1690,
Christian Huygens proposed a theory that explained light as
a wave phenomenon. However, a rival theory was offered
by Sir Isaac Newton in 1704. Newton, who had discovered
the visible spectrum in 1666, held that light is composed of
tiny particles, or corpuscles, emitted by luminous bodies.
By combining this corpuscular theory with his laws of
mechanics, he was able to explain many optical
phenomena.
 For more than 100 years, Newton's corpuscular theory of light
was favored over the wave theory, partly because of Newton's
great prestige and partly because not enough experimental
evidence existed to provide an adequate basis of comparison
between the two theories. Finally, important experiments were
done on the diffraction and interference of light by Thomas
Young (1801) and A. J. Fresnel (1814–15) that could only be
interpreted in terms of the wave theory. The polarization of light
was still another phenomenon that could only be explained by
the wave theory. Thus, in the 19th century, the wave theory
became the dominant theory of the nature of light.
 The wave theory received additional support from the
electromagnetic theory of James Clerk Maxwell (1864),
who showed that electric and magnetic fields were
propagated together and that their speed was identical with
the speed of light. It thus became clear that visible light is
a form of electromagnetic radiation, constituting only a
small part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Maxwell's
theory was confirmed experimentally with the discovery of
radio waves by Heinrich Hertz in 1886.
 With the development of the quantum theory of atomic and molecular
structure by Niels Bohr and others, it became apparent that light and other
forms of electromagnetic radiation are emitted and absorbed in connection
with energy transitions of the particles of the substance radiating or
absorbing the light. In these processes, the quantum, or particle, nature of
light is more important than its wave nature. When the transmission of light
is under consideration, however, the wave nature dominates over the particle
nature. In 1924, Louis de Broglie showed that an analogous picture holds
for particle behavior, with moving particles having certain wavelike
properties that govern their motion, so that there exists a complementarity
between particles and waves known as particle-wave duality (see also
complementarity principle). The quantum theory of light has successfully
explained all aspects of the behavior of light.
 Light is a source of energy. Without light, we will not
be able to see anything. It is only because of the
phenomena of reflection and refraction that we are
able to view objects. The ultimate source of light on
the earth is the Sun.

Optics refers to the study of the light; and also

the study of the interaction of light.

Light waves are electromagnetic waves; they are

transverse in their nature. The speed of light in the
vacuum is exactly 299,792,458 m/s. The frequency of
the light remains unchanged; however, its speed and
wavelength vary, depending upon the medium through
which it passes.
 Luminous Objects: Luminous
objects are those which emit their
own light; for example, the sun,
other stars, etc.

 Non-Luminous Objects: Non-

luminous objects are those which
do not emit their own light. They
become visible only because of the
reflection of light falling on them;
for example, table, board, car, etc.
 Ray of Light: A ray of light is a
straight line drawn to distinguish
the path of the propagation of
light.

 A Beam of Light: A beam of light

is defined as the bundle of closely
packed rays of light.
 Real Image: A real image forms
when the light rays focus at the
image position. It is located in the
plane of convergence. Also, it is
possible to make a real image on a
screen, like a sheet of paper.

 Virtual Image: A virtual image

forms where the light rays do not
actually meet but appear to meet.
b. Reflection and Refraction
 The change in the direction/path of light when
it strikes an object and bounces back from the
surface of the object is called reflection. The
surface of the object can either absorb or reflect
the light which strikes it. The rays of light
falling/striking a polished surface, like a mirror,
are reflected back. A boundary refers to the
margin for the transition of the medium.
The reflection of light involves the
following rays:

 Incident Ray: The ray of light which

strikes the surface of an object.

 Reflected Ray: The ray of light which is

reflected back/bounced back the moment
it strikes the surface of an object.

 Normal Line: An imaginary line which

is perpendicular to the boundary or the
surface of an object.
Reflection of Light
- once the ray of light strikes a surface of an object, it
forms an angle of incidence and the angle of reflection.

 The Angle of Incidence (θi): The angle which the

incident ray forms with the normal line at the point of
incidence.

 The Angle of Reflection (θreflection): The angle which

the reflected ray forms with the normal at the point
where the reflected ray bounces back.
 Types of Reflection:

 Regular Reflection: A regular reflection occurs when the reflecting surface

is very smooth. When a parallel beam of incident rays strike a smooth
surface, a parallel beam of reflected rays is obtained. The objects are clearly
visible and distinguishable in the reflected image.

 Diffused/Irregular Reflection: An irregular reflection occurs when the

reflecting surface is rough. When a beam of incident rays strikes a rough
surface, a non-parallel beam of reflected rays is obtained.
Laws of Reflection

Now, the laws of reflection are formulated as:

The angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection.

Both the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection are measured
from the normal line; θi=θ reflection. The incident ray, the normal,
and the reflected ray- all lie in the same plane. The incident ray, as
well as the reflected ray, are on the opposite sides of the normal line.
The laws of reflection are applicable to all reflecting surfaces like
polished surfaces, plane surfaces (mirrors), and curved surfaces
(spherical mirrors).
Calculation of the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection:

The angle of incidence and the angle of reflection are calculated by

just drawing a line, called normal line, perpendicular to the surface
of the object.
Refraction of Light - light travels at the constant speed in space or when the medium is
same.
The speed of light varies when it travels from one medium to another. When the light
enters a glass medium, its speed reduces. When the light strikes the surface of the glass at
an angle of 90°, it passes straight through the glass; nonetheless, its speed decreases.
However, when the ray of light strikes the surface of a glass at an angle other than 90°, not
only does its speed reduces; but the ray of light bends also. This phenomenon of the
bending of light, as the light passes from one medium to another, is called ‘refraction.’
Refraction of the light is the most common phenomenon as
because of this property of light one can see the objects.
Lenses of human eyes are like a convex lens and when the
light hits on the lens it converges on the retina and image of
the object forms on the retina. This converging of light is an
example of refraction. Making of optical lenses, binoculars,
microscopes and other optical devices use this property of
light. Natural phenomenon like mirages and rainbows
appear due to the refraction of light.
Refraction is the bending of light and this can be visualised when it
passes from one transparent medium to another transparent medium.
The banding capacity of any medium is termed as refractive index.
Use of this property of light is very common in nature as well as
artificial. Therefore, there are two types of refraction, namely,
natural and artificial refraction. A common example of natural
refraction is atmospheric refraction. Due to this atmospheric
refraction, the light from the sun reaches on the earth and spreads all
over. Refraction depends on the density of the medium. The density
of the medium slows down the speed of light and therefore light
bends.
In the atmosphere, the density of air is low at high altitudes and it
becomes denser at low altitudes. The density of air also depends on
temperature and pressure. At high altitudes, the density of air is low
hence it does not spread the light much. But when the light emerges
deep down the density of air increases which refracts the light more
and spreading of light occurs more. This is phenomenon is more
predominant at the time of sunrise and sunset. Before the time of
sunrise, though the sun does not appear the light emerges from the
horizon. Similarly, even after the sunset, light appears at the
horizon.
Temperature variation also affects the refraction of light. When we
see the objects over the fire or heated surface, we find that objects
are shimmering. This shimmering of objects is due to the mixing of
hot air (near the fire of heated surface) with the cold air. The same
phenomenon occurs in hot summer days on the roads. In summer
day, another phenomenon occurs which is a mirage. In this, if we see
the road at a certain angle, it appears that water has covered the
surface. This illusion is only due to refraction.

Artificial refraction has medical uses also. With the help of this
property of light, refractive errors of human eyes are corrected and
corrective lenses are made.
Laws of Refraction

The refraction of light is governed by three laws.

First law: The first law of refraction states that the incident ray, the refracted ray and the
normal to the interface of two transparent media at the point of incidence, all lie in the same
plane.

Second law: The second law states that when a ray of light passes through a rarer medium
to a denser medium, the refracted ray comes closer to the normal while the ray of light
passes through a denser medium to a rarer medium, the refracted ray moves away from the
normal. This law of refraction is termed as Snell’s law. According to Snell’s law, the ratio of
the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant. This
constant is the refractive index.

This constant or refractive index is denoted by ‘n’.

Another way of representing ‘n’ is as the ratio of the
velocity of light in one medium to the velocity of light
in another medium. When light falls on the water
surface, the medium above the water surface is air and
velocity of light in the air is assumed to be equal to ‘c’,
equivalent to velocity of light in vacuum. Assuming
that the velocity of light in the water is ‘u’ then
so we can say that
Third law: According
to the third law, the
incident ray passing
through the normal
always goes straight in
the media after
refraction.
Application of Refraction of Light

It has many applications in nature and human

life. In nature, the formation of rainbows and
mirages are because of the refraction of light.
Rainbows form when the light passes through the
droplets presented in the moist air. The light gets
refracted and forms a rainbow.
In human life, refraction of light plays an
important role. It has many applications in optics
and imaging technology. Some of the applications
are:
· Refraction concave and convex glasses are used
to correct the refractive errors of human eyes
· Peepholes in the doors, magnifying glasses,
binoculars, cameras, lenses in the projectors, etc.
use the principle of refraction of light.
Snell’s Law – The Laws of Refraction

The point of refraction is created where the incident

rays lands and the angle that it makes with the
refracted ray not forgetting the normal line that is
dropped on the plane perpendicularly. The medium
through which the rays of light are passing creates a
considerable difference in refraction unlike in
reflection of light. The refractive indices make the
dependency on the medium apparent in Snell’s Law.
The following is a diagrammatic representation:
The normal on the surface is used to gauge the angles that the refracted ray
creates at the contact point.

•  and  are the two different mediums that will impact the refraction.
• The refractive index of water is 1.33 whereas the refractive index of air is
1.00029.
• Thus, to understand the concept of Snell’s Law let’s consider the light of
wavelength 600 nm that goes from water into the air.
• To calculate the angle made by the outgoing ray we apply the figures in the
formula mentioned above.
• 1.33 sin 30o = 1.00029 sin x
• x = 41o

When one fishes with a spear it is not as difficult as fishing with a rod as the
fisherman has to encounter refraction in the latter case.
Refraction in Nature
Why Do Stars Twinkle?

When a ray of light travels from one medium to another it ‘bends’. This phenomenon is referred to
as refraction. If it travels from a rare medium to a dense medium, it bends towards the normal and
if it travels from a dense medium to a rarer medium, it bends away from the normal. The speed at
which the light travels changes depending on the medium and therefore this bending occurs.

This effect can be observed when light passes through a prism or a glass slab and even when light
passes through water. The light ray travels from air to a medium of different densities here.

So how are refraction and twinkling connected? The atmosphere of the earth is made of different
layers. It is affected by winds, varying temperatures, and different densities as well. When light
from a distant source (a star) passes through our turbulent (moving air) atmosphere, it undergoes
refraction many times. When we finally perceive this light from a star, it appears to be twinkling!
This is because some light rays reach us directly, and some bends away from and toward us. It
happens so fast that it gives a twinkling effect.
Sample solving problems
on Refraction
c. Total Internal Reflection
What is Total Internal Reflection?

Total internal reflection is defined as:

- The phenomenon which occurs when the

light rays travel from a more optically denser
medium to a less optically denser medium.
Consider the following situation. A ray of light passes from a
medium of water to that of air. Light ray will be refracted at the
junction separating the two media. Since it passes from a
medium of a higher refractive index to that having a lower
refractive index, the refracted light ray bends away from the
normal. At a specific angle of incidence, the incident ray of light
is refracted in such a way that it passes along the surface of the
water. This particular angle of incidence is called the critical
angle. Here the angle of refraction is 90 degrees. When the
angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, the incident
ray is reflected back to the medium. We call this phenomenon
total internal reflection.
Total Internal Reflection
What are the Conditions of Total Internal
Reflection?

Following are the two conditions of total internal

reflection:

· The light ray moves from a more dense medium to

a less dense medium.
· The angle of incidence must be greater than the
critical angle.
Examples of Total Internal Reflection

Following are the examples of total internal reflection:

Diamond:
When the incident ray falls on every face of the diamond
such that the angle formed, the ray is greater than the
critical angle. The critical value of the diamond is 23°.
This condition is responsible for the total internal
reflection in a diamond which makes it shine.
Mirage:
It is an optical illusion that is responsible for the appearance of the
water layer at short distances in a desert or on the road. Mirage is
an example of total internal reflection which occurs due to
atmospheric refraction.

Optical Fibre:
When the incident ray falls on the cladding, it suffers total internal
reflection as the angle formed by the ray is greater than the critical
angle. Optical fibres have revolutionized the speed with which signals
are transferred, not only across cities but across countries and continents
making telecommunication one of the fastest modes of information
transfer. Optical fibres are also used in endoscopy.
d. Dispersion
Dispersion is defined as the
spreading of white light
into its full spectrum of
wavelengths. More
technically, dispersion
occurs whenever the
propagation of light
depends on wavelength.
 Any type of wave can exhibit dispersion. For example, sound waves, all types
of electromagnetic waves, and water waves can be dispersed according to
wavelength. Dispersion may require special circumstances and can result in
spectacular displays such as in the production of a rainbow. This is also true for
sound, since all frequencies ordinarily travel at the same speed. If you listen to
sound through a long tube, such as a vacuum cleaner hose, you can easily hear it
dispersed by interaction with the tube. Dispersion, in fact, can reveal a great deal
about what the wave has encountered that disperses its wavelengths. The dispersion
of electromagnetic radiation from outer space, for example, has revealed much
about what exists between the stars—the so-called interstellar medium.
Refraction is responsible for dispersion in rainbows and many other situations. The angle of
refraction depends on the index of refraction, as we know from Snell’s law. We know that
the index of refraction n depends on the medium. But for a given medium, n also depends
on wavelength.

(a) A pure wavelength of light falls onto a prism and is refracted at both
surfaces. (b) White light is dispersed by the prism (shown exaggerated).
Since the index of refraction varies with wavelength, the angles of
refraction vary with wavelength. A sequence of red to violet is produced,
because the index of refraction increases steadily with decreasing
wavelength.
Dispersion of White Light by Flint Glass

A beam of white light goes from air into flint glass at an incidence angle of 43.2°. What is the
angle between the red (660 nm) and violet (410 nm) parts of the refracted light?

Values for the indices of refraction for flint glass at various wavelengths are listed in the
given picture above. Use these values for calculate the angle of refraction for each color
and then take the difference to find the dispersion angle.
Significance:

Although 0.6° may seem like a negligibly small

angle, if this beam is allowed to propagate a long
enough distance, the dispersion of colors
becomes quite noticeable.
e. Polarization
What is Polarization?

Polarization, in Physics, is defined as a phenomenon

caused due to the wave nature of electromagnetic
radiation. Sunlight travels through the vacuum to reach
the Earth, which is an example of an electromagnetic
wave. These waves are called electromagnetic waves
because they form when an electric field interacts with
a magnetic field.
 Polarization is a plane in which
electromagnetic waves vibrate when
it is polarized so as to vibrate in a
single plane.
 The French physicist Etienne Louis
Malus discovered the polarization
of light.
Light is the interaction of electric and magnetic fields travelling
through space. The electric and magnetic vibrations of a light wave
occur perpendicularly to each other. The electric field moves in one
direction and the magnetic field in another ‘perpendicular to each
other. So, we have one plane occupied by an electric field, another
plane of the magnetic field perpendicular to it, and the direction of
travel is perpendicular to both. These electric and magnetic vibrations
can occur in numerous planes. A light wave that is vibrating in more
than one plane is known as unpolarized light. The light emitted by
the sun, by a lamp or a tube light are all unpolarised light sources. As
you can see in the image below, the direction of propagation is
constant, but the planes on which the amplitude occurs are changing.
The other kind of wave is a polarized wave. Polarized
waves are light waves in which the vibrations occur in
a single plane. Plane polarized light consists of waves
in which the direction of vibration is the same for all
waves. In the image above, you can see that a plane
polarized light vibrates on only one plane. The process
of transforming unpolarized light into polarized light is
known as polarization. The devices like the polarizers
you see are used for the polarization of light.
Types of Polarization

Following are the three types of polarization

depending on how the electric field is oriented:

 Linear polarization
 Circular polarization
 Elliptical polarizatio
 Linear Polarization
- In linear polarization, the electric field of light is limited to a single
plane along the direction of propagation.

 Circular Polarization
- There are two linear components in the electric field of light that
are perpendicular to each other such that their amplitudes are equal, but
the phase difference is π/2. The propagation of the occurring electric
field will be in a circular motion.

 Elliptical Polarization
- The electric field of light follows an elliptical propagation. The
amplitude and phase difference between the two linear components are
not equal.
Methods Used in the Polarization of Light

There are a few methods used in the polarization of

light:

 Polarization by Transmission
 Polarization by Reflection
 Polarization by Scattering
 Polarization by Refraction
Polarization Applications

Following are the applications of polarization:

 Polarization is used in sunglasses to reduce the glare.

 Polaroid filters are used in plastic industries for performing stress
analysis tests.
 Three-dimensional movies are produced and shown with the help of
polarization.
 Polarization is used for differentiating between transverse and
longitudinal waves.
 Infrared spectroscopy uses polarization.
 It is used in seismology to study earthquakes.
 In Chemistry, the chirality of organic compounds is tested using
polarization techniques.
f. Scattering of Light
When light passes from one medium to another,
say air, a glass of water, then a part of the light
is absorbed by particles of the medium,
preceded by its subsequent radiation in a
particular direction. This phenomenon is termed
a scattering of light. The intensity of scattered
light depends on the size of the particles and the
wavelength of the light.
Shorter wavelength and high-frequency scatter
more due to the waviness of the line and its
intersection with a particle. The wavier the line,
the more the chance it intersects with a particle.
On the other hand, longer wavelengths have low
frequency, they are straighter, and the chances of
colliding with the particle are less, so the
chances are less.
The bending of multicoloured light can be seen
in the afternoon due to the refraction and total
internal reflection of light. The wavelength of
the sunlight forms different colours in different
directions. Rayleigh scattering theory is
reasoned for the red colour of the sun in the
morning and the blue colour of the sky.
Let p be considered as the probability of scattering and λ is
the wavelength of radiation, then it is given as:

P ⋉

The probability for scattering will give a high rise for a

shorter wavelength, and it is inversely proportional to the
fourth power of the radiation wavelength.
Why Is the Colour of the Clear Sky Blue? And Why Are the
Clouds White?

Molecules with a larger size than the wavelength of light

experience the scattering effect differently; the phenomenon is
known as the Mie effect. Due to the largeness of particles, the light
appears white. That is why the clouds, which are made of water
droplets, are white. The blue colour is present in the major
percentage of the lower wavelengths. With the wavelength of the
light, the scattering efficiency of the small molecules in the
atmosphere decreases. Sun radiates its light, and its rays fall into
the earth’s envelope thus, sunlight gets scattered in the atmosphere.
Some examples also show scattering; particles like
dust and smoke can also scatter radiation. In the same
manner, we can explain the red colour appearance of
the sun. For red light, the wavelength is more, and it
is easy to go through the atmosphere as the scattering
is less for red light. When the light is on any other
object, it gets scattered depending on its properties as
different light has different intensities, and each
particle has different characteristics.
Particles and gases in the Earth’s
atmosphere scatter sunlight in every
direction. Blue light is much more scattered
than any other colour because it propagates
as smaller, shorter waves. This is the reason
why the sky is blue most of the time.
Concept of Scattering of light.

When a light beam goes through a medium, it hits

the particles existing in them. Due to this
phenomenon, some light rays get absorbed while a
few get scattered in various directions. The intensity
of the scattered light rays depends on the particles’
size and wavelength.
g. Huygens’s Principle
Huygens principle proposed by Christian
Huygens. In 1678 revolutionised our
understanding of light and its characteristics.
You may be familiar with the rectilinear light
theory that suggests light travels along straight
paths. Huygens principle is one of the key
methods for studying various optical
phenomena.
Huygens principle is a method of analysis applied
to wave propagation problems both in the far-field
limit and near-field diffraction and reflection. It
states that:

“Every point on a wavefront is in itself the source

of spherical wavelets which spread out in the
forward direction at the speed of light. The sum of
these spherical wavelets forms the wavefront”.
However, this theory did not explain why refraction occurred in
the first place. Secondly, it could not explain how light carries
energy as it travels.

Huygens Principle, also known as the Huygens–Fresnel principle,

highlights the following wave propagation behaviour:

• Secondary sources form wavelets similar to the primary

source.
• At any given time, the common tangent on the wavelets in the
forward direction gives the new wavefront.
• The wavefront is the sum of the spherical wavelets.
Primary and Secondary Sources

Huygens stated that light is a wave propagating

through space like ripples in water or sound in air.
Hence, light spreads out like a wave in all
directions from a source. The locus of points that
travelled some distance during a fixed time
interval is called a wavefront. Thus, from a point
source of light, the locus of points that light has
travelled during a fixed time period is a sphere
After the primary wavefront is created, a secondary
wavefront is created from every primary wavefront.
Secondly, every point on the wavefront acts as a secondary
source of light that emits more wavefronts. This way, a
light wave propagates through space by generating
secondary sources and wavefronts. The net effect is that
the effective wavefront generated is tangential to all the
secondary wavefronts generated by the secondary sources.
The direction of the traverse is always perpendicular to the
wavefronts.
Huygens’s theory explains the wave theory of light
phenomena of diffraction, interference, reflection, and
refraction well, considering it was proposed two centuries
ago. (The former two phenomena were not even discovered
until the 19th century).

Example:

If a stone is thrown into the river, it will create waves around

that point in the form of ripples which are circular in nature,
called a wavefront.
Huygens Principle and Diffraction

When light passes through an aperture, every point on the light

wave within the aperture can be viewed as a source creating a
circular wave that propagates outward from the aperture. The
aperture thus creates a new wave source that propagates in the
form of a circular wavefront. The centre of the wavefront has
greater intensity while the edges have a lesser intensity. This
explains the observed diffraction pattern and why a perfect image
of the aperture on a screen is not created. A daily life example of
this phenomenon is common. If someone in another room calls
toward you, the sound seems to be coming from the doorway.
Huygens’s principle states that every
point on a wavefront is the source of
spherical wavelets. The sum of these
spherical wavelets forms the
wavefront.
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THANK YOU