Module 1.1 IF Movements, Forces and Torques

Electric Drives The training course
Fundamentals of electric drive technology

Movements, forces and torques
Information Section
Module 1.1 IF Part movements, forces and torques
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Subjects of this presentation:

Movements
Forces
Torques
Basic physical-technical principles

Movements
Movements
Forces
Torques
Basic physical-technical principles Movements

Movements …
are dynamic processes to change the position or

orientation of bodies.
From physical point of view, there are uniform

movements - processes which occur constantly
with unchanging parameters such as speed and
direction.
If certain parameters change during the process, they

are called non-uniform or – in the movement –
accelerated processes.
Dynamic processes are therefore very important,

because many actuators are designed on their basis.
The dynamic response increases the effect
of static variables such as a force significantly.

Linear,
Uniformly accelerated
The displacement s
is the local orientation variable during the position
change by a straight-line movement. (Translation)
Symbol: s
Calculation: = s 0 + v0 ∙ t + (a ∙ t² / 2)
Unit of
measurement: Name: Metre
Character: m
a - Acceleration
s - Distance travelled to time t
s0 - Initial distance already travelled before the movement
v0 - Initial speed
t - Time required or past

Linear,
Speed v
is a dimension of the distance travelled in a certain
time.
If the movement is accelerated, the distance travelled

in a given time increases continuously –
the speed value increases accordingly.
Symbol: v
Calculation: =a ∙ t
Unit of
measurement: Name: Metres per second
Character: m/s
a - Acceleration

Linear,
Acceleration a
is a value for the change in speed within a certain
period.
In braking processes, the values for acceleration are

negative. However, they only affect the direction of
action of forces which result from the movement.
In straight-line, uniformly accelerated movements, the

acceleration is constant and not equal to zero.
Symbol: a
Calculation: = (v2 - v1 - v0) / t = 2 ∙ s / t²
Unit of
measurement: Name: Metres per
s - Distance travelled to time t second squared
s0 - Initial distance already travelled before the movement
Character: m/s²
v0 - Initial speed
v1 - Speed before the movement
v2 - Speed after the movement
v - Speed at time t

Linear,
Non-uniformly accelerated
The jolt j
is a dimension for the change in an acceleration.
For example, a jolt occurs if the acceleration value

changes during an already accelerated movement. That
not only applies to straight-line movements, but also to
circular movements. A change in the movement radius'
can cause a jerk.
Symbol: j
Calculation: = (a2 - a1 ) / t
Unit of
measurement: Name: Metre per
second cubed
Character: m/s³
a - Acceleration
a1 - Acceleration
a2 - Acceleration

Linear,
Uniform, non-accelerated
Uniform, non-accelerated movements are a special

form of uniform accelerated movements, in which the
acceleration value is zero.
a = 0
The calculations for uniformly accelerated movement

are simplified accordingly,
but can still be used.
As a result, they are not repeated here.

Movements on a circular path,

uniform, non-accelerated
Movement on a circular path is not to be confused

with rotation (turning movement) of bodies
around an axis.
Duty cycle T
is the time of a complete circulation of 360°.
e.g.: 0.1 s.
It is connected with the following two variables:
The speed n
is the number of revolutions within a time.
e.g.: 10/s = 600/min (alt = 10 r.p.m.)
Frequency f
corresponds to the speed value.
e.g.: 10 Hz = 10/s.
Calculations: T=1/n [s]
f = 1/T [Hz], Hertz
n = 1/T [1/s]


Radians are used instead of degrees for circular or

rotating motions.
Unit circle
Radius = 1 (rad)
A radian
is a variable without dimension. In order to distinguish it
from degrees, the units of measurement or characters
Radian or rad are used.
A radian corresponds to the circumference of a circle

or circle segment on a 'standardised' circle, the unit circle.
360° = 2 180° =  90° = /2 The unit circle has a standardised radius of 1, without a
dimension specification such as m, mm or similar. (r = 1
m/m)
The following dependencies apply:
360° = 2 (radian) = 2 rad

180° = 
90° = /2
1 rad = 180°/ = 57.3°
1° = /180 rad = 0.017 rad


Circular,
uniformly accelerated
Axis of circular movement The rotation angle
is the local orientation variable during the position change
Rotation by a movement on a circular path.
angle
Symbol: 
Unit of
measurement: Name: Degree or radian
Character: Degree: °
Radian: rad


Axis of circular movement Angular velocity The angular velocity 
specifies how quickly a specific rotation angle
Rotation angle is travelled.
In uniform, non-accelerated movements,

the angular velocity is constant.
Symbol: 
Calculation: = ( 2 - 1 ) / t
= 2 / T
= 2 ∙ n = 2 ∙ f
Unit of
measurement: Name: 1 per second
Character: 1/s
j - Rotation angle travelled to time t

1 - Angle at the start of the rotation
2 - Angle at the end of the rotation
T - Duty cycle, time for one rotation of 360° (full rotation)
n - Speed

Circular,
Angular acceleration
The angular acceleration 
specifies the extent to which the angular velocity changes
Rotation in a given time.
angle
Positive values mean an increase of the angular velocity
and negative values a reduction.
In uniformly accelerated movements, the value

is constant, a = constant.
Symbol: 
Calculation: = (1 - 0) / t
Unit of
j - Rotation angle travelled to time t measurement: Name: 1 per second squared
0 - Initial angle, already travelled before the movement Character: 1/s² or s-2
1 - Angle at the end of the rotation
w - Angular velocity
0 - Angular velocity before the rotation
 - Angular acceleration

Circular,
The rotation angle

is the local orientation variable during the position change
by a movement on a circular path.
In accelerated movements, it depends on the angular

acceleration . At an increasing speed, a greater angle is
travelled in the same time.
Symbol: 
Calculation: = 0 + 0 ∙ t + ( ∙ t² /2)
Unit of
measurement: Name: Degree or radian
Character: Grad: °
j - Rotation angle travelled to time t Radian: rad
0 - Initial angle, already travelled before the movement
ω - Angular velocity
 - Angular acceleration

Relationships between translation

and rotation
Translation Rotation
Displacement: s =  ∙ r =s/r
Speed: v= ∙r =v/r
Acceleration: a=∙r =a/r


Forces
Movements
Forces
Torques
Basic physical-technical principles Forces

A force F…
can move or deflect bodies, for example. In

accordance with their causes, there are friction forces,
magnetic forces, spring forces, weight forces,
centrifugal forces etc.
In drive technology, mechanical forces required

to move bodies play a primary role.
Essentially, these are as follows:
• Forces for accelerating and braking
• Friction forces and
• Centrifugal forces.

Major characteristics
Force is a vector variable - it has:
- An amount and
Direction of action of the force
- A direction.
It is represented with an arrow.
The length of the arrow is an expression of the amount

of the force, i.e. whether it is a correspondingly high
or low force. Scale representations can be used for
graphic calculation methods.
Amount, quantity, height
The tip of the arrow indicated the respective direction
of action.
Representation of the force vector


Forces are designated with the symbol F

for force or fortintudo.
The calculation differs for the different types of force

and depends on the variables.
• Symbol: F
• Unit of
measurement: Name: Newton*
Character: N
N = 1 kgm / s²

Sir Isaac Newton,
English naturalist, 1643 - 1727

Forces can
Fres - be added and
multiplied both numerically and graphically.
F2
F1
Addition: F1 + F2 = Fres
Fres
F2
F1

Forces can
- be broken down into their components parallel

to the coordinate axes.
y
F Fy = F ∙ sin 
Fy Fy
90° Fx = F ∙ cos 

F = √ Fx ² + Fy ²
Fx x
Breakdown of the force in components parallel to the axes of a coordinate system

Rectangular system

Forces can
- be broken down into their components parallel

to the coordinate axes.
y
F F1 = F ∙ sin  / (sin (180° -  - )

F1  Fy
F2 = F ∙ sin / (sin (180° -  - )

F2
Breakdown of the force in componenets parallel to the axes of a coordinate system
General system

Acceleration Force, mass and acceleration ...

Force
are very closely linked.

FT = m ∙ a
To move a mass, a force F is required.
The amount of force required depends on the mass

Translation value and the amount of acceleration to which the
mass is subject.
Positive acceleration values, i.e. values greater than

zero, mean an increase in the speed of the mass, for
example.
Negative values can decrease the speed – the

movement is braked or delayed.
FRadial = ar ∙ r Reasons for the acceleration can be a change in

the speed of the movement or the direction of
movement of the mass.
Rotation m- Mass
a - Acceleration
ω - Angular velocity

Weight force FG …
is a permanently acting force which results from the

earth's gravitational pull.
Acceleration due to gravity g In the earth's gravitational field, a force accelerates all
Weight force FG bodies at the rate of acceleration due to gravity,
g = 9.81 m/s².
The weight force FG always works towards the centre

Component F1 parallel to inclined plane
'Downward slope force'
of the earth – normally, this is vertically down.
F1 = FG ∙ sin 
Symbol: FG
Calculation: FG = m · g
Unit of
Component F2 vertically into the
inclined plane 'normal force' Character: N N = 1 kgm / s²
F2 = FG ∙ cos 
Weight force and different active directions


Friction forces FF …
FF (FrictionForce)
v occur when bodies grip to one another (stiction), slide
on one another (sliding friction) or roll
Stiction for v = 0 (rolling friction).
Sliding friction for v > 0
Grease, water, oil etc. between the contact surfaces
F G = FN decrease the friction force.
FF v
Rolling friction
Symbol: FF
F G = FN
Calculation: FF = µ · F N
Stiction >> Sliding friction >> Rolling friction
Unit of
µ - Friction coefficient [-], 0 … 1 measurement: Name: Newton*
Friction forces v - Speed Character: N N = 1 kgm / s²

Friction forces FF …
( FrictionForce )
occur when bodies grip to one another (stiction), slide
on one another (sliding friction) or roll
(rolling friction).
Grease, water, oil etc. between the contact surfaces

decrease the friction force.
Material pairs Dry Lubricated
(approx.) (approx.)
Steel / Steel 0.15 0.13
Steel / Cast iron 0.19

Steel / Aluminium 0.19
Steel / Bronze 0.19 0.18
Bronze / Bronze 0.18 0.11
Bronze / Cast iron 0.28 0.21
The values can deviate significantly due to different surface finenesses. Symbol: FF
Calculation: FF = µ · FN
Unit of
Friction coefficient examples Character: N N = 1 kgm / s²

Centrifugal forces FC …
(Centrifugal Force)
occur when bodies move in a circular path.
The amount depends on the mass, the angular velocity

(speed) and the radius of the circular path.
As this force attempts to move the body away from the

centre of the circular path, like in a centrifuge,
it is called centrifugal force.
FR
However, to keep the body in the circular path, an
opposite force aimed at the centre of the circular path
FC is required, radial force, FR.
Symbol: FC = F R
Calculation: FC = m · v² / r = m · ω² · r
= m · 4 · ² · r / T²
Unit of
Character: N N = 1 kgm / s²

Torques
Movements
Forces
Torques
Basic physical-technical principles Torques

The torque MStatic …

M Action line of force F
S
describes the effect of a force which sets a body in
rotation, or subjects it to torsion.
The type and extent of the effect depends on the

amount of force exerted, its direction of action and the
direct, vertical distance of the direction of action to a
defined centre of rotation on the body.
l F This distance is called the lever arm.
Symbol: MStatic
Lever arm
Calculation: = F·l
Unit of
measurement: Name: Newton metre
Character: Nm
Nm = 1 kgm² / s²
Important:
l The torque shown here is a variable for describing static load
factors. Torques required for an accelerated, i.e. dynamic
movement, are dynamic characteristics. See Torque Mdynamic.
Torque

The mass moment of inertia J …
can be viewed as an additional resistance for a

rotation. For every acceleration, the inertia of the mass
to be moved must first be overcome.
For translation, the force F=m·a must be applied.

There, only the values of the mass and the acceleration
have an effect.
For rotation, there is an additional factor: the

distribution of the mass to the axis of rotation.
The physical variable which represents this influence
is the mass moment of inertia J.
Symbol: J
n
a- Distance from the axis of rotation to the centre of mass of the body Calculation: =  mi · r²i **
i=1
b- Width of the cuboid
c- Length of the cuboid
m- Mass Unit of
r1 - Internal radius of the cylinder measurement: Name: Kilogram per
r2 - External radius of the cylinder square metre
rB - Sphere radius
Character: kgm²
** For simplification, there are basic forms for technical bodies

Examples of mass moments of inertia which are used for calculation. See figure.

The dynamic torque MDynamic …
Swivel motion is a key variable for describing the movement of

Rotating or swivel axis
rotating bodies - the dynamic response of rotating
bodies.
Body with
mass moment of inertia J
For the dynamic response of translational moving
bodies, the following applies:
F = m · a. The transfer to rotation leads to the
following formula:
MDynamic = J · 
a
Symbol: MDynamic
a- Distance from the axis of rotation to the centre of mass of the body Calculation: = J·
b- Width of the cuboid
c- Length of the cuboid
m- Mass Unit of
r1 - Internal radius of the cylinder measurement: Name: Kilogram per
r2 - External radius of the cylinder square metre
rB - Sphere radius
Character: kgm²
Examples of mass moments of inertia

Basic physical-technical principles Mechanical work and power

Only the component of a force
Fa which is in the direction of movement Mechanical work W ...
is effective.
F s is performed whenever a body is moved or deformed.
Acceleration work
The main forms of work for calculating automation
W=F·s =m·a·s = ½ · m · v² technology component are:
F = Fa · cos 
- Work for acceleration
F - Work for overcoming friction forces and
N - Work for lifting.
F s
Depending on the type of movement, the calculations
R Friction work are broken down into translation and rotation.
W = FR · s = µ · FN · s
Symbol: W
Calculation: See figure
Unit of
s measurement: Name: Newton metre
F W = FH · s =m·g·s Character: Nm = kg m² / s²
H
Lifting work
Work for translation


Mechanical work W ...
is performed whenever a body is moved or deformed.
The main forms of work for calculating automation

technologycomponent are:
- Work for acceleration

- Work for overcoming friction forces and
- Work for lifting.
Depending on the type of movement, the calculations

are broken down into translation and rotatoin.
W = MDynamic · φ =J·
Symbol: W
Calculation: = MDynamic · φ =J·
Unit of
Character: Nm = kg m²/s² = Ws
Ws – Watt second = 1 J
W – Watt = J/s = Nm/s
J – Joule = Nm
Work for rotation


Mechanical power …
specifies the time in which a mechanical power

is output.
Symbol: P
Calculation: =W/t
Unit of
measurement: Name: Watt
Character: W
W – Watt = J/s = Nm/s

J – Joule = Nm
Formerly also in horse power
1 horse power = 736 W
Mechanical power

Energy E …
v is, on one hand, the expression for the energy required
to move or deform a body. On the other hand, the
value gives a variable for the work capacity of a body
Kinetic energy for translation - e.g. a weight which falls from
a specific height to deform materials.
Ekin = ½ ∙ m · v²
In general, three forms of energy are important
for automation technology calculations:

- Potentielle energy -
as an expression for a work capacity
and
h
F - Kinetic energy -
G as an expression of movement energy.
Symbol: E
Potential energy Calculation: See figure

Epot = m · g ∙ h
Unit of
Kinetic energy on rotation
Character: Nm = kg m² / s²
Erot = ½ ∙  J · ²
Power
We wish you every success with your new knowledge!

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Electric Drives The training course

Fundamentals of electric drive technology

Subjects of this presentation:

Basic physical-technical principles

Basic physical-technical principles Movements

are dynamic processes to change the position or

From physical point of view, there are uniform

If certain parameters change during the process, they

Dynamic processes are therefore very important,

Basic physical-technical principles Movements

Basic physical-technical principles Movements

If the movement is accelerated, the distance travelled

Basic physical-technical principles Movements

In braking processes, the values for acceleration are

In straight-line, uniformly accelerated movements, the

Calculation: = (v2 - v1 - v0) / t = 2 ∙ s / t²

Basic physical-technical principles Movements

For example, a jolt occurs if the acceleration value

Basic physical-technical principles Movements

Uniform, non-accelerated movements are a special

The calculations for uniformly accelerated movement

Basic physical-technical principles Movements

Movements on a circular path,

Movement on a circular path is not to be confused

It is connected with the following two variables:

Calculations: T=1/n [s]

f = 1/T [Hz], Hertz

Basic physical-technical principles Movements

Movements on a circular path,

Radians are used instead of degrees for circular or

A radian corresponds to the circumference of a circle

The following dependencies apply:

360° = 2 (radian) = 2 rad

1 rad = 180°/ = 57.3°

1° = /180 rad = 0.017 rad

Basic physical-technical principles Movements

Basic physical-technical principles Movements

Movements on a circular path,

In uniform, non-accelerated movements,

j - Rotation angle travelled to time t

Basic physical-technical principles Movements

In uniformly accelerated movements, the value

Calculation: = (1 - 0) / t

Basic physical-technical principles Movements

The rotation angle

In accelerated movements, it depends on the angular

Basic physical-technical principles Movements

Relationships between translation

Speed: v= ∙r =v/r

Acceleration: a=∙r =a/r

Basic physical-technical principles

Basic physical-technical principles Forces

can move or deflect bodies, for example. In

In drive technology, mechanical forces required

Essentially, these are as follows:

• Forces for accelerating and braking

• Friction forces and

Basic physical-technical principles Forces

Force is a vector variable - it has:

It is represented with an arrow.

The length of the arrow is an expression of the amount

Representation of the force vector