Basic Concepts in Research

Outline
• Basic principles of science
• Elements of scientific thought
• Stages in research process
 Basic principles of Science
• Objectivity
Objectivity means that conditions are arranged so
that personal and subjective elements enter into the
research as little as possible (Miller, 1986) or outside
the researchers as far as possible (Kerlinger, 1979).
Research is never fully objective, the problems
studied, the questions asked, and the data
interpreted reflect the values of researchers
(Baumrind, 1980; Gergen, 1982).
 Basic principles of Science
• Replicability
Replicability means that the findings of a study
can be reproduced by other researchers
following the same or similar procedures (Miller,
1986).
In order a study to be replicable, it must have
objectivity.
Replicability may lead to empirical
generalization.
 Elements of Scientific Thought
1. Concepts (constructs)
A concept is one of the most fundamental
elements in scientific thought.
A concept is mental abstraction of particular
things or events.
A concept has both a word or label and its
meaning or definition.
Broad concepts and specific concepts.
 Elements of Scientific Thought
2. Variables
A variable is a concept that varies (has two
or more values).
How a variable varies?
Presence or absent
Categorical
 Continuous (varies a long a continuous range;
varies in amount, not in kind)
 Elements of Scientific Thought
3. Relationships
A relationship is how variables covary or vary together.
In many cases, relationship may involve variables
which are dependent and independent (causal
relationship).
Causal relationship has 3 criteria:
a) Covariation
b) Temporal priority
c) The elimination of alternative explanation
Relationship may also simultaneous.
 Elements of Scientific Thought
4. Theories
A theory is a set of interrelated concepts
(constructs), definitions, and propositions that
presents a systematic view of phenomena by
specifying relations among variables, with the
purpose of explaining and predicting the
phenomena (Kerlinger, 1973).
Theories are general principles that summarize
what we know about a particular set of
relationships (Miller, 1986).
 Stages in Research Process
• Formulating the problems
• Specifying hypotheses
• Choosing a research design
• Devising and refining measurement
• Sampling
• Collecting data
• Reducing and analyzing data
• Interpreting findings and drawing conclusions