Textile Chemical Processing

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 UNIT -I
Wet Process Sequence / Process
Flow
for
Cotton Fabric

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3
 Singeing

“To burn off the protruding fibers from a yarn or fabric. ”

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Objective
To remove projecting fibres or protruding fibres, which gives it a fuzzy appearance,
from the surface of the fabric so as to give it a smoother, cleaner appearance.
The reason for which singeing is necessary:
(i) Singeing improves the end use and wearing properties of textiles.
(ii) The burning-off of protruding fibres results in a clean surface which allows the
structure of the fabric more clear.
(iii) Singeing reduces the fogginess caused by differing reflection of light by the
projecting fibre and the dyed fabrics appear brighter.
(iv) Singeing is an effective means of reducing pilling in blended fabrics containing
synthetic fibres.
(v) Unsinged fabrics soil more easily than singed fabrics.
(vi) A closely singed fabric is essential for printing fine intricate patterns.
(vii) Singeing process facilitates and speeds up desizing, if the fabric is impregnated with
desizing liquor immediately after singeing.

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Advantages
• Reduced fogginess.
• Reduced pilling.
• Reduced Soiling.
• Improved end use and wearing properties.
• Clean Surface.

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Draw Backs
i. Uneven singeing effect can cause streaks when the fabric is dyed, or bubbles
when the fabric is finished.
ii. In the cotton system singeing is done on the grey cloth, but for blended fabrics
iii. containing synthetic fibres grey state singeing is not advisable because small
globules of melted synthetic fibres absorb dye preferentially, giving cloth a
speckled appearance.
iv. There is a possibility of thermal damage to temperature sensitive fibres, for
instance polyester.
v. Stop-offs can cause heat bars on fabrics. Creasing produces streaks which are
magnified when dyed.
 

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 Singeing Parameters

 Fabric Speed

 Flame Intensity

 Flame Colour

 Burner Position

 Flame Distance from Fabric Surface

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Plate Singeing Machine
• Plate singeing machine consists of 1-2 inch thick copper plates which are heated
from below by burning heavy petroleum oil.
• The plates are heated to a bright red colour and the fabric passes over the
plates at speeds up to 200 yards per minute.
• A special traversing arrangement is provided to prevent local cooling which may
occur due to constant passage of cloth over it.
• The singed cloth is then run through water to extinguish the spark.

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Rotary Cylinder Singeing Machine
• Cloth passes over a hollow cylinder. It rotates slowly in a direction opposite to
that of fabric.
• It is fired internally.

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Gas Singeing
• Mixture of gas and air under pressure is used as the heat source.
• This mixture is fed into a slot burner where it undergoes combustion.
• Coal gas, petrol gas or butane gas may be used as the fuel.
• The width of the burner can be adjusted to suit different fabric widths.
• The flame height and consequently the heat intensity can be varied.
• Upon combustion the temperature of the flame may reach 1300 0C.
• It is important to preheat the cloth to reduce its moisture content
• Immediately after singeing, the cloth may be quenched in an aqueous bath

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Gas Singeing - Fabric

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Gas Singeing - Yarn

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Gas Singeing Problems
• Uneven singeing --------------> can lead to dyeing Streak
• Thermal Damage due to high flame temperature
• Stop Offs whenever the machine stops, excessive localized heating may result in
Heat Bars
• Creasing --------------> Dyeing Streaks
• Size Hardening --------------> Difficulty in desizing
• Sublimation of dye in PET Singeing

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INDIRECT Systems

• Thermal energy produced by the source is used for burning the fibres and there is no contact
between the heat source and fabric. Example– Radiation Singeing.
• Here fire-proof ceramic blocks are heated to a high temperature, which radiate infrared radiation.
This radiation can heat the fibres to such an extent that they can burn. The advantage of indirect
singeing are:
• No Flame Contact, hence safer approach
• Uniform Singeing, as radiation can be distributed uniformly around a fabric surface.

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 Desizing

“The process of removal of size material applied on warp threads of a

fabric ”

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Objective
Desizing is the process of removal of size material applied on
warp threads of a fabric to facilitate the process of weaving.

In general the impurities from textile substrates can be removed by following

processes:

 Solubilization

 Emulsification

 Chemical breakdown by

 Hydrolysis

 Oxidation

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• Mechanism
• Dextrin - Dextrins are a group of low-
molecular-weight carbohydrates produced
by the hydrolysis of starch and glycogen-
செயற்கைப் பசைவகை
• stored form of glucose is made up of many
connected glucose molecules and is called
glycogen.
• Maltose is an intermediate sugar

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Classification

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Important parameters

• Temperature
• pH
• Time
PH a measurement of the level of acid or
• Circulation alkali in a substance.
ஒரு பொருளிலுள்ள அமில அல்லது காரப்பொருளின்
• M:L ratio அளவை மதிப்பிடுவதற்கான அலகு.

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 ROT STEEPING

Rot steeping
• Steeping in water at 30-40 C, starch swells
0
is the oldest and
• Swollen starch is attacked by enzymes secreted by microorganisms in environment cheapest method
• Hydrolyzed starch is removed by normal washing where no special
chemical is used.
• Low capital investment The fabric is
• Slow, low reproducibility, risk of cellulose being attacked passed through
warm water at a
40-degree celsius
Rot steeping has become obsolete because of poor process control and slowness of in padding
the process. mangle where the
cloth is squeezed
to about 100
percent
expression.

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ACID STEEPING

The 1-4 linkage can be broken by acid hydrolysis also. Mineral acids are used.
• H 2SO 4/HCl- (5-10 gpl) is needed at 40 0C for 3-4 hours.
• Above 400C & 10 gpl acid concentration, degradation of cotton cellulose itself may
occur.
• The fabric is padded with acid solution and stored (batched).
• Action of acid will result in gradual degradation of starch. But not all starch is
degraded to the extent where it all becomes water soluble.
• Hence the action of acid will result in fabric having a range of starch molecular
weights. Some with high water solubility, some with medium and some with poor or
no solubility.
• Hence desizing should always be followed with hot water washing to remove
maximum amount of starch.
Precaution - Local drying during storage should not be allowed to take place at any
cost. It may result in high concentrations of acid at localized places which can cause
cellulose degradation.

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ACID STEEPING

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 ENZYME DESIZING
Enzymes are:
• Organic biocatalyst, highly specific in reaction catalyzed and Enzymatic desizing is the classical
choice of reactants/substrate and hence safe to the substrate
desizing process of degrading
• Physically---- colloidal in nature starch size on cotton fabrics using
• High molecular weight proteins (3-D) enzymes.
• Work under specific conditions of temperature and pH hence
better process control is needed
• Lose activity gradually with time
• Generally act under mild conditions
• Have to be cultivated and nurtured like crops (from fungi)
• Genetic engineering allows enzymes to be designed for specific
processes

Enzyme Concentration (g/l) Temperature (oC) pH

Malt Extract 3-20 50-60 6-7.5
Pancreatic 1-3 50-60 6.5-7.5

Bacterial 0.5-1 60-70 5.5-7.5 24

ENZYME DESIZING

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 OXIDATIVE DESIZING

In oxidative desizing in textile, the starch is

Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
Sodium bromite (NaBrO2)
Sodium and potassium persulphate
(Na 2S2O8, K 2S2O8)
oxidized and this process is also known as grey
chemicking. Gaseous chlorine is used as an active
reagent in this type of oxidative desizing. The grey
cloth is impregnated with water in a two-bowl
padding mangle.

Sodium chlorite (NaClO2)

Peroxy monosulphuric acid (H2SO5)

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Low temperature plasma treatment
• In this Process, a carefully evacuated chamber is used for desizing
action.
• The fabric is subjected to a plasma created by particular equipment
in the chamber. The amount of size removed is determined by the
radio frequency used in the procedure, the treatment time and the
plasma gas composition.
• Advantages:
• 1. Low temperature Plasma treatment is an eco- friendly process
Desizing 2000
• The Desizing 2000 is the combined process of cotton with Three
ingredients. It is a demineralization process of cotton with Beixon-NE,
Kollaso IMEC and Beisol T2090.
• For this process, use either the cold pad batch or pad steam process
• Advantages:
• 1. It is a simple and reliable process.
• 2.Combined desizing and demineralization process is done hence, it is
the most efficient and effective method of Desizing.
ASSESSMENT OF DESIZING EFFICIENCY
 Weight loss Method

% Loss of Weight =

 Drop Absorbency

 Residual Starch content (TAGAWA Method)

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ASSESSMENT OF DESIZING EFFICIENCY
 TAGAWA Method
• Reagent preparation
Put potassium iodide [10g of KI (100%)] in 100 ml of water; then add 0.6358 g of iodine
(100%); stir well until iodine is completely dissolved in the KI solution. After this, add 800
ml of ethanol. Then by adding water the volume should be raised to 1000 ml.
• Method of testing
Put one or two drops of the above solution on a fabric. Rub it gently and then assess the
colour change as per the Tegewa scale. Before testing, the fabric should be cold and there
should not be any residual alkalinity in it.

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 Batch process
Desizing
Semi-continuous
Hydrolytic
Oxidative
Continuous
Rot steeping
• Hydrogen-peroxide
• Sodium bromite
• Persulphate
Acid steeping

Enzymatic
desizing Recipe
Parameters: Advantages
Time
pH
Temperature Disadvantages
Concentration
 Scouring
What is Scouring?
 The object of scouring is Removal of natural Impurities in the fabric
Normally natural fiber contains dust, oil, wax, minerals and many
impurities as well.
we have to cleanse these for further process. So the way of removing
those impurities is called scouring.
The most important wet process used on textile products before 
dyeing or printing is scouring.
 Definition of Cotton Scouring:
•
Main purpose of cotton scouring is to
eliminate natural and artificial
impurities from the fabric, making it
cleaner and more absorbent.
• Cotton fabric scouring is a chemical
cleaning procedure that removes
natural wax and non-fibrous impurities
from the fabrics, as well as any
additional soiling or dirt.
• Cotton fabric is usually scoured in
kiers, which are large iron vessels.
 Objectives/purpose of Scouring:

• Natural and synthetic oils, fats, and waxes are removed from clothing products
• Improve hydrophilicity
• Improve absorbency
• Prepare for the next process
• To get uniform bleaching result
• The scouring procedure is dependent on:
• The type of cotton which is using
• Color of cotton
• Cleanliness of cotton
• The twist & count of the cotton
• Construction of fabric
 Flow sort & Impurities in scouring
• Flow chart of cotton scouring:
• Impurities involved in cotton scouring:
The impurities in cotton fiber can range from
• Cotton fabric/fiber
4 to 12%
• ↓
• Inspection
• ConstituentsPercentage by dry weight
• ↓ • Α-cellulose -88.0-96.5
• Wetted by NaOH solution • Protein-1.0-1.9
• ↓
• Wax -0.4-1.2
• Emulsification
• ↓
• Ash (inorganic salts) -0.7-1.6
• Detergency • Pectins -0.4-1.2
• ↓ • Others (resins, pigments, hemi-cellulose,
• Washing sugars, organic acids, incrusted ligneous
• ↓ substance) -0.5-8.0
• Scoured fabric
 Actions in Cotton Scouring & Chemicals
• Chemicals and their purposes in scouring:
• • 1. Caustic soda (NaOH): Neutralizes acidic materials, saponify
Actions involved in glycerides (waxes and oils), solubilize silicates.
• 2. Sodium silicate: Penetrate and breakdown lignin in motes.
scouring are These penetrant’s are added, commonly, when fabrics have large
contents of motes and other assorted materials.
• Saponification
• 3. Wetting agent: Reduce surface tension and minimize interfacial
• Emulsification tensions.
• 4. Detergents: Emulsify fats, oils and waxes; remove oil borne
• Detergency stains; suspend materials after they have been removed.
• 5. Chelating (sequestering agents): Deactivate metal ions.
• 6. Builder (salt): Cause detergents to become increasingly
effective.
• 7. Solvent: Assists emulsification by dissolving oily materials.
 Basic surfactant concepts
 Surfactants are organic molecules which have amphiphilic nature.
They have a hydrophobic portion (generally a long fatty chain) and a
hydrophilic head (an an ion or a cat ion and sometimes an ethylene oxide
chain).
Its occupy space in the boundary of a hydrophilic & a hydrophobic
medium.

An amphiphile or amphipath, is a chemical

compound possessing both hydrophilic
(water-loving, polar) and lipophilic (fat-
loving) properties

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Emulsification

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Solubilization

(a) Using a surfactant above critical Micelle, Concentration

(b) Solubilisation using a solvent
 Using a solvent to dissolve away the hydrophobic soil.
 A solvent may be emulsified in an aqueous medium & the resultant emulsion,
which may be emulsified in an aqueous medium& the resultant emulsion, which
may contain only a small amount of solvent may be used to remove the oily soil.

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Impurities in Cotton

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Impurities in Cotton

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Classification of Scouring Agents

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The removal of impurities of cotton during alkaline scouring process 

Impurities Mechanism of impurity removal

Fats & waxes Saponification: The saponifiable parts of waxes (fatty acid, glycerides, and esterd)
are converted into soap.
Emulsification: The non-saponifiable parts of the waxes such as alcohols and
hydrocarbons are emulsified by the soap formed.
High temperature: melts some of the waxy materials and converts some of it to a
water soluble form.
In extreme cases the use of solvent is necessary.
Pectin and related Solubilisation: By the action of alkali, which also acts as a swelling agent to Hydrolysis is a chemical
substances facilitate removal. reaction of the
Pectins are converted to water soluble salts of pectic or meta-pectic acid. interaction of chemicals
Proteins and amino Hydrolysis: Proteins are hydrolysed with the formation of soluble sodium salts of with water, leading to the
acids amino acid. decomposition of both
Hemicelluloses Dissolution: Hemicelluloses with low DP are dissolved in NaOH. the substance and water

Inorganic substances, Partially dissolve in NaOH.

minerals and heavy By producing more soluble salt e.g. acid demineralisation.
metals By use of sequestering or chelating agents.
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Emulsification - to emulsify non emulsifiable wax, generally nonionic
surfactants

• Saponifiable oils are converted to Soaps by the action of alkali.

• Proteins – Hydrolyzed to soluble degradation products by alkali.
• Simple amino compound – hydrolyzed to ammonia by alkali.
• Pectose & pectins are converted into soluble salts of pectic/metapectic acid By alkali.
• Mineral Matter – either dissolves in water or removed by souring or sequestering agents.
• Unsaponifiable oils & waxes – Emulsified by emulsifying agent.
• Modern mineral oil formulations usually contain self-emulsified system which can be
removed easily with water.
• Motes - Cellulose of low crystallinity swell in alkali & became sodium cellulosate which is
water soluble. Residual motes are destroyed in bleaching.

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Scouring of Natural cotton fabric

Recipe

^ Sodium hydroxide -2–4%

^ Sodium Carbonate -1–2%

^ Soap - 1%

^ M:L Ratio - 1:20

^ pH - 10 to 11

^ Time - 4 to 6 hours

^ Temperature - Boil

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Scouring of coloured woven cotton fabric

Recipe

^ Sodium hydroxide - 1-2%

^ Sodium silicate - 1%

^ Soap - 1%

^ M:L Ratio - 1:20

^ pH - 10 to 11

^ Time - 4 to 6 hours

^ Temperature - Boil

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Scouring of Man Made Textile and Synthetic Textile

Recipes for scouring man-made fibres and their blends

a) 100% Polyester and 100% Viscose Rayon Fabrics

1.Soda Ash - 1 to 2 g/l

2. Detergent - 1 to 2 g/l

3. Temperature - 60 to 70o C

4. Time - 30 minutes

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Scouring of Blended Textile

b) Polyester: cotton Blends (using a jigger)

1. Soda Ash - 0.5 to 1%

2. Detergent - 0.2 to 0.5%

3. Temperature - 100oC

4. Time - 60-90 minutes

Polyester: cotton blend (using a winch machine)

1. Sodium Hydroxide - 0.2 to 0.5%

2. Detergent - 0.2 to 0.5%

3. Temperature - 75o C

4. Time - 60-90 minutes

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Kier (Pressure Kier) (Batch) – Working Principle

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Kier – Working Principle

Sodium hydroxide 1 to 1.5%

Sodium silicate 1%
Soap 1%
Detergent (Wetting agent) 1%
M:L Ratio 1:3 to 1:5
Time 6 to 12 hours
pH 10 to 11
Temperature 100 to 130 degree C
Pressure 1.5 to 2.0 kg/cm2

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J-Box (Continuous system) – Working Principle
Inside temperature –
100 C

Saturation of fabric
with recipe before
treatment in the J-
Box.

Time 40 – 60 min.

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Assessment of scouring efficiency
Degradation of Cotton during Scouring
Main changes:
Loss in weight (5-10%)

Significant increase in absorbency (1-3 seconds)

Improvement is TEGEWA rating

Slight increase in average DP (due to removal of
low mol. Wt. components)
Shrinkage

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Assessment of scouring efficiency

1. Practical tests of absorbency

2. Measurements of
(a) Weight loss
(b) Protein content
(c) Residual wax content

(d) Methylene blue absorption (removal of pectic

substances)

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 Bleaching
.
• Textile bleaching process is a chemical treatment employed for the removal of
natural coloring matter from the substrate.
• The source of natural color is organic compounds with conjugated double
bonds, by doing chemical bleaching the discoloration takes place by the
breaking the chromophore, most likely destroying the one or more double
bonds with in this conjugated system.
• The material appears whiter after the bleaching.
• In spite of these processes whiteness would have been impossible without 
optical brightening agents. However, the degree of whiteness is not only the
main criterion bin evaluation of bleaching, but also absorbency.
 Objective of Bleaching

• It removes the natural color from

textile materials.
• It brings the textile materials
permanent white.
• Improve the absorbency of the
textile materials.
• Produce textile materials for the
next process.
• Some fabrics are sold as bleached
goods.
 Purposes of Bleaching Process
•
1. A high and uniform absorptivity of fabric for water, dyestuffs and finishing
agent, achieved by the removal of hydrophobic impurities from the natural fiber.
• 2. A sufficiently high and uniform degree of whiteness, which is stable to storage.
The fabric should not be damaged with the degree of polymerization remaining
high.
• 3. Of the two methods of bleaching, oxidative and reduction bleaching, the latter
processes predominate in the treatment of wool whilst the former process is
most frequently used for cotton.
 Bleaching Process
• Generally, there are two types of the bleaching process
• Hand Bleaching
• Machine Bleaching
• Hand Bleaching: It is a small scale production process for domestic and
cottage industry. Before machine invention, it was practiced until it is in
use. It is not a defectless and controlled process.
• Machine Bleaching: It is continuous and discontinuous large scale
production process. Modern textile industries have used this process.
Machine bleaching us controlled and defectless. Production cost is less
in the machining process. 
The bleaching process can be divided into two processes depending on the bleaching agent:
Bleaching by Oxidizing agents
Bleaching by Reducing agents
• Oxidizing bleaching agents
• Chlorine gas
• Bleaching powder {Ca(OCl)Cl
• Sodium hypo-chloride (Na2OCl)
• Calcium hypo-chloride {Ca(OCl)2}
• Potassium di-chromate (K2Cr2O7)
• Sodium di-chromate (Na2Cr2)
• Potassium permanganate ( KMnO4)
• Potassium Chlorate (KClO3)
• Sodium peroxide (Na2O2)
• Oxidizing bleaching agents
• Oxidizing agents generally are used
for cellulosic fibers. If reducing
agents are used then after bleaching
when fabrics come in contact with
air they become yellowish or
reddish that is come back to the
original color. But oxidizing agents
bleach goods free from this defect.
So, goods become permanent
white. Therefore Oxidizing bleaching
agents are generally favored.
 Reducing bleaching agents
• Hydrogen (H2)
• Carbon (C)
• Carbon mono oxide
• Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
• Sulphur dioxide(SO2)
• Ferrous sulphate (FeSO4)
• Titenous chloride(TiCl2)
• Zinc dust (Zn)
• Sodium Sulphate (Na2SO4)
• The bleaching agents mentioned in the side
table all are not used in the bleaching
process. Some bleaching agents are very
costly. Some agents cannot bleach
completely. Reducing bleaching agents only
used for protein fibers.
• Reducing bleaching agents
• Protein fibers wool and silk generally
bleached with reducing bleaching agents.
Because chlorine present in oxidizing
agents damages proteins fibers without
bleaching action. This is why animal fibers
are bleached with reducing agents.
 Factors considered in the bleaching process
• Concentration of chemicals
• Liquor ratio (L: R)
• pH of the chemical solution.
• Time of treatment.
Main Bleaching agents

 Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl)

 Sodium Chlorite (NaClO2)
 Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)

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Preparation of Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl)

• Sodium hypochlorite is available as a clear solution, ready for use, and containing 14 to 15% of
available chlorine.
Preparation of sodium hypochlorite
There are three methods for the preparation of sodium hypochlorite.
1. By passing gaseous chlorine into a cold solution of sodium hydroxide.
2. By electrolysing a solution of sodium chloride.
3. By adding sodium carbonate, sodium hydroxide to an aqueous solution of bleaching powder.

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 Bleaching of cellulosic fibres with NaOCl:
Influence of process parameters

concentration, pH, time

 cotton is bleached with NaOCl solution containing 1-3 gpl available chlorine at room temperature
in the pH range 9.5-11

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 practical bleaching conditions are

• pH 9-11.5
At pH 9 ------------- time to bleach - 45 min
At pH 11.5 ---------- time approximately 4 hrs.
Temperature --------- Room temperature
Concentration -------- 2-3 gpl available chlorine
Commercial solutions of NaOCl are available as 40% (~ 400 gpl) solutions.

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Bleaching in a Cement Cistern or Tank

B
G

A - S u m p ( B le a c h i n g li q u o r ) D - P um p G – L i q u o r o u t le t t o s u m p
B - P e rf o r a t e d f a ls e b o tt o m E - S p ra ye rs
C - C lo t h ( o r ) H a n k y a r n F - T h ic k fa b ric c o v er

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 Naocl Bleaching – Advantages
• It is economical
• Risk of catalytic damage is low (this is a problem with H2O2 bleaching)
• Since it is a room tempretaure process, the energy costs are low

Disadvantages
• Fibre damage can take place if temperature and pH are not controlled.
• It results in formation of AOX.
• Bleached material can turn yellow on storage
• Can degrade many dyes and FBAs (simultaneous dying and bleaching or bleaching and
FBA treatment is not possible)
• It cannot be used for bleaching of synthetic or protein fibres.
• It does not produce a very satisfactory white.

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Naocl Bleaching – After Treatment
• The washed material is then ‘soured’ with dilute
mineral acid (like 1 g/l HCl) to remove by
Souring neutralisation the last traces of alkalinity in the material
arising from the bleach bath. After souring, the material
is washed with fresh water.

• The goods are next given a treatment with a dilute

Neutralisation solution of soda ash to remove traces of the mineral
acid. They are finally washed thoroughly.

• To free the material from any traces of residual

Anti-chlor treatment chlorine, it is given a treatment with a solution of
sodium bisulphite and finally washed thoroughly.

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Bleaching with Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
H2O2 is gradually replacing other oxidative bleaching processes.
The reasons for its dominance are:
• Since it’s by products are only water and oxygen, it is an eco
friendly agent.
• It is a versatile and universal bleaching agent. It can be used at
almost any temperature, in batch or continuous processes for
almost all the fibres.

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 Bleaching with Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
Auxiliaries Used in H2O2 Bleaching
1. Activator
2. Stabilizer
3. Sequestering agents
Activators:
Commercially available H2O2 is stabilized at acidic pH. For it to act as an oxidizing
beaching agent, the pH of H2O2 solution must be increased to basic range with
the help of an alkali. The most commonly used alkali used in raising the pH of
the bleach bath is sodium hydroxide (NaOH).
Stabilizers:
Cotton is bleached using the oxidizing power of hydrogen peroxide to remove the
primary contaminants such as pigment originally contained in the fiber,
decompose and decolorize, and obtain the required whiteness. 
At that time, the stabilizer for hydrogen peroxide bleaching is used to prevent
uneven bleaching, to reduce fiber embrittlement, and to effectively use hydrogen
peroxide for bleaching.

As stabilizers for hydrogen peroxide bleaching, there are types such as silicates,
polycarboxylic acids, aminocarboxylic acids, optimal chemicals are selected in
consideration of required whiteness, processing conditions, cost, etc.
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 Bleaching with Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
Sequestering Agents
To minimize the harmful effects of metal cations, sequestering agents are often used. These are compounds
which sequester the metal cations, rendering them harmless. Some examples are:
 Poly phophonates
 Poly hydroxyl carboxylic acids
 Amino poly carboxylic acids
 Phosphonic acids
 Poly acrylic acids
The most common sequestering agents are di-ethylene tri-amine penta acetic acid (DTPA) and ethylene di-
amine tetra acetic acid (EDTA) as sodium or magnesium salts.

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 H2O2Bleaching – Effect of Process parameters
2. Effect of temperature

In practice, the bleaching of cotton is carried out at or around boil (90-100 °C). However,
rapid bleaching is possible in pressurized equipment at 120 °C. Bleaching at low
temperature (~80 °C) will result in concomitant increase in process time.

Bleaching Process
3. Batch process (ex.) Open kier, Jigger, Winch etc.,
4. Semi-continuous process (ex.) padding mangle
5. Continuous process (ex.) J-Box

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H2O2Bleaching – Bleaching Process
Typical recipe for BATCH production
Hydrogen peroxide (35% by weight) - 1 to 2% (owf) Temperature (normal atm) - 85 to 95 C

Sodium silicate - 2% (owf) Time - 1 to 6 hours

Sodium hydroxide - 0.25% (owf)

Soda ash - 1% (owf)

Typical recipe for SEMI-CONTINUOUS production

Hydrogen peroxide (35% by weight) - 2 to 8% Initial pH - 10.5 to 11.5

Sodium silicate - 3% Temperature: At saturator - 85 to 90C

During steaming - 95 C

Sodium carbonate - 0.8 to 6%

Sodium hydroxide - 0.4 to 0.6%

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 Continuous H2O2Bleaching –
Combined Scouring & Bleaching Process

Cloth
Water wash Water wash

Scouring Liquor Saturator Peroxide saturator

containing 2 - 8%H2O2
4-5%NaOHat 75 C
J-box dwell period J-box dwell period
Pre-heater 60 - 90 min at 100 C Pre-heater 60 - 90 min at 100 C
90 - 100 C 90 - 100 C

SCOURING UNIT BLEACHINGUNIT WASHING UNIT

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63
 Capacity: ca. 600 kg/h
BLEACHING - 3 MAIN
STEPS
Demineralization Wahing off &
(incl. de-oiling) Bleaching (pad-steam) rinsing
 H2O2Bleaching – Universal Bleaching agent

1. H2O2 can be used for bleaching cotton, wool, silk, jute, etc, but hypochlorite is not to be used for
bleaching fibres like wool, silk, nylon etc.
2. The consumption of water is economical in hydrogen peroxide bleaching. There is no necessity
for elaborate after-treatment like souring, anti-chlor, etc as in the case of hypochlorite bleaching.
3. The minimum number of operators and thus the labour cost is less but the chemical cost is high.
4. Superior whiteness can be achieved in H2O2 bleaching.
5. Material bleached with H2O2 is more absorbent than hypochlorite bleached material.
6. When coloured goods are to be bleached, H2O2 is the better bleaching agent.
7. H2O2 bleaching is much safer from the point of chemical degradation of cotton during bleaching.
8. Continuous scouring and bleaching using hydrogen peroxide can be done in a single operation
on a continuous bleaching machine.
9. There is hardly any tendency of peroxide-bleached goods to yellow on storage, as it does with
hypochlorite-bleached material.

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 H2O2Bleaching – Merits & Demerits
Advantages of Peroxide bleaching
1. It is a universal bleaching agent. It can be used for bleaching of natural, synthetic and
blended fibres.
2. It is possible to combine scouring and bleaching.
3. No antichlor treatment is required.
4. It is noncorrosive and does not produce unpleasant odour.
5. No AOX problem, no harmful by-products.
6. Residual size and wax removal continuous through bleaching; results in improved
absorbing and TEGEWA rating.
Disadvantages
1. Use of silicates as stabilizers has a risk of silica stain formation on goods and silica
deposits forming on plant machinery
2. Catalytic damage to cotton can occur in presence of transition metal cations.
3. Not very effective for synthetic fibres.
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Bleaching with NaClO2 (sodium chlorite)
• Sodium chlorite is another Chlorine containing oxidising bleaching agent. It
remains stable at high pH and has to be activated with acids or acid liberating
agents to bring down the pH when bleaching takes place.
• The bleaching species in Sodium chlorite is ClO2 gas which is liberated at pH
below 6. The equations below show the decomposition of chlorite into ClO2 gas
and other components.
• These acid generators (activators) include Sodium Chloroacetate, Triethanol
Amine, Ammonium Persulphate etc.
• Active chlorine values are usually determined by adding an excess of  potassium
iodide  to a sample of bleach solution and  titrating  the  iodine  liberated with
standard  sodium thiosulfate  solution.
• Acids like formic acetic, phosphoric acids may be used to bring the pH down.
Other alternatives are esters like ethyl lactate or diethyl tartarate which
hydrolyse to give lactic and tartaric acid respectively.

79
 Bleaching with NaClO2 (sodium chlorite)

 Salient features of NaClO2:

1. Redox potential – 1040-1200 mV • Redox potential is the
2. Bleaching temperature – 70-90 °C
3. Suitable pH for bleaching – 3-4.5(4+-
tendency of a chemical
0.2) species to either be
Problem of
Bleaching:
Corrosion with NaClO2 reduced by accepting
 The CO2 gas released during bleaching has the electrons or oxidized by
tendency to corrode most of the equipment
used in the construction of bleaching
donating electrons
equipment. The following approached are
used to minimize the corrosion of bleaching
equipment:

80
Bleaching with NaClO2 (sodium chlorite)
  Effect of Temperature:
 NaClO2 is a fibre gentle bleaching agent. It does not affect cellulose adversely even if
bleached at high temperature (100 °C) for several hours.
 At boil, the bleaching time is a few hours (1-4).
 However, bleaching at ambient temperature may require overnight batching.
 The rate of bleaching rate double for every 10 °C rise in the process.

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Bleaching with NaClO2 – Merits & Demerits
Advantages
1. It can be used for both cotton and synthetic fibres. Since it works in acidic
conditions, it is better suited to bleach synthetic fibres which are susceptible to
alkaline pH.
2. Since it is used in acidic conditions, hardness of water does not impair the
process (low ash content) .
3. Leaves material soft. Hence it can be preferred for knitted fabrics.
4. It can give good white colour with excellent mote removal even without kier
boiling.
5. It causes very little or no cellulose degradation.
6. It is insensitive to the presence of metal ions.

82
Bleaching with NaClO2 – Merits & Demerits
Disadvantages

1. More expensive than NaOCl or H2O2.

2. It cannot be used to bleach silk and wool (pink coloration ).

3. ClO2 can corrode the metals used in construction of processing vessels.

ClO2 is also a toxic gas, so care should be taken in handling the

4.
bleaching process.

5. Since in works at acidic pH, wax removal is not very satisfactory.

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Assessment of Bleaching Efficiency
1. Absorbency of the Bleached fabric
2. Cuprammonium Fluidity
3. Whiteness and Whiteness Retention
4. Ash Content
5. Fats and Waxes
6. pH of the Aqueous Extract

84
 WHAT IS HEAT SETTING?
• Heat setting of polyester:
Heat-setting is a heat treatment by which shape
retention, crease resistance, resilience and elasticity
are imparted to the fibres.
• It also brings changes in strength, stretchability, 
softness,  dyeability and sometimes on the colour of
the material.
• All these changes are connected with the structural
and chemical modifications occurring in the fibre.
• Heat setting is the process applicable to fabrics made
from synthetic fibres like nylon, polyester in which the
fabric is subjected to the action of high temperature
for a short time to make it dimensionally stable so
that the garments made from such fabrics retain their
shape on washing and ironing.The main aim of heat
setting process is ensure that fabric do not alter their
dimensions during use.
 Wool Carbonizing

• The vegetable matter is removed by chemical means;

• The process is called wool carbonizing.
• The method is comparatively simple.
• The wool to be carbonized is placed in tanks containing solutions of some
strong acid like chloride of aluminum, hydrochloride, or sulphuric acid.
• Here it remains for a period of twelve hours, during which it is stirred
several times.
• The acid, if it is not too strong, does not affect the woolen fibres. But
attacks all vegetable matter and causes it to crumble.
 Wool carbonizing Process
• The most commonly used acid for this purpose is sulphuric acid.
• In its simplest form, carbonising follows wool scouring and consists of
acidification, drying, baking, mechanical crushing and dusting to
remove the embrittled VM, neutralisation and final drying.
• The process of loose wool carbonising has remained essentially
unchanged for many years. I
 Carbonizing of wool Fabric
• The scoured wool fabric is padded, either in the rope form or in open width, with liquor
containing dilute sulfuric acid (5 to 7 % by wt.) at approximately 65% wet pick up.
• Dried at 65 -90 degree celsius to concentrate the acid.
• Baking at 125 degree celsius for one minute chars the cellulosic material.
• The charred vegetable material is brittle and easily crushed on passing the rollers.
• It can be removed as dust during subsequent mechanical working.
• After carbonizing the wool fabric should rinsed and neutralized by washing.
• Such neutralization should be carried out immediately after baking; otherwise fabric
damage will occur during storage of wool in such as acidic state.
• It is convenient to neutralize prior to dyeing but uneven neutralization leads to uneven
dyeing’s.
 Processing Stages
• Processing stages The conventional technique of wool carbonising has the following basic steps:
• 1. Scouring of the raw wool with non-ionic detergent
• 2. Rinsing
• 3. Immersion in a long bowl containing 5-7% (w/v) sulphuric acid, 1-2 g/L detergent (Crewther 1995; Pressley 1955) at 20-30o C
• 4. Double squeezing and/or continuous centrifuging prior to drying
• 5. Drying at 60-80o C to a low regain
• 6. Baking at 95-120o C to carbonise the VM
• 7. Pass through crushing rollers to crush the embrittled VM
• 8. Convey to a rotating shaker/de-duster to remove the charred VM dust
• 9. Pass through a neutralising bowl usually containing sodium carbonate
• 10. Rinsing with a small addition of detergent
• 11. Bleaching with hydrogen peroxide at approximately pH 5 with formic acid
• 12. Final drying.
• The production rate through the process is usually low, typically 500-600 kg/h for a 1200 mm wide line. Sufficient time must
elapse for the VM to adsorb the acid from the bowl and for subsequent baking to embrittle the acidified cellulose.
 Weighting of Silk
• The weighting process is carried out to increase the silk weight,
providing fuller hand, more luster and bulk, and making the fiber
suitable for the manufacturing of fabrics to be used, for example, for
ties.
• We can say simply, the process of increasing the weight of the silk
material is known as weighting of silk.
• The weight increase is expressed as percentage weighting above or
below the parity.
• Parity weighting means that the fiber regains the original weight it
had before the degumming process:
 Weighting of Silk
• There are many types of
weighting; till some years ago, a
few mills still carried out mineral
weighting.
• Now this process has been
abandoned definitively.
• Today, the most frequently
applied type of weighting is
synthetic weighting (or chemical
linking).
• As a result of the loss of sericin during
degumming, silk loses up to 25% of its
weight.
• Traditionally, weighting was achieved with
the addition of metal salts, notably tin
salts, which possessed the added
advantage of providing flame resistance.
• Weighting with salts has now been
superseded by grafting methacrylic acid or
methyl methacrylate to the fibers and
initiating polymerization.
• This approach does not compromise the
strength of the fibers.
 Objectives of Silk Weighting
• After the processing of silk material, it loses • Other Objects:
about 25% of its weight particularly after
degumming. • Weighting is also done to reduce
• This loss in weight leads to a great loss of
money since they are very expensive.
limpness.
• To compensate the loss, some weight is • To impart a bulky effect.
artificially added to the material by chemical
means. • To control the scroopy effect.
• During degumming of silk, a weight loss of 25% • To give body to the fabric.
is normally observed in case of silk fabrics.
• Owing to the expensive nature of silk, it is • To give a greater filling capacity.
necessary to compensate the weight loss.
 Silk Weighting Process
• Tin salts are widely used for silk weighting. A variety of methods has
been used over the years to weight silk; these can be classified into
three categories:
• Vegetable weighting
• Mineral weighting
• Polymer weighting
 Silk Weighting Process
Vegetable weighting:
The use of tanning agents is a simple
operation causing improvements in
hydrophobicity; however, due to their
inherent color, they cannot be applied
on light-colored dyed fabric or white
fabrics. The method is now rarely
used.
Mineral weighting
Tin phosphate/silicate is the most
popular weighting process.
•.
•  Polymer weighting:
Organic weighting by grafting has
recently been introduced to decrease
cost and to avoid deleterious effects of
metallic weighting.
• This method of weighting is based on a
treatment of methyacrylamide and
ammonium persulfate..
• The disadvantage of this method is that
it alters the dyeing properties of the
fiber; however, it is preferred as it is less
harmful to the environment than
mineral weighting.
 In other ways of silk weighting,
• 1st Method
• The silk is soaked with stannic chloride
solution followed by fixation with sodium
carbonate followed by soaping.
• Marginal weight increase is observed but
the strength is also adversely affected in this
method.
• 2nd method
• The silk is soaked in stannic chloride and the
fixed with sodium phosphate.
• It is then washed and treated with little
amount of sulphuric acid.
• It is then soured, washed and taken out
• 3rd Method
• In this method the fixation is done with sodium silicate.
• This brings out the required increase in weight without
affecting the strength much
• Normal Method:
• In the normal practice silk is soaked in stannic chloride
solution called Picking.
• Later it is treated with sodium phosphate called
Phosphating.
• The picking and Phosphating is carried out alternatively
till the sufficient weight is achieved and the sequence
is:
• Picking washing – Phosphating – acidifying
• Finally after sufficient loading it is treated with Sodium
Silicate.
 KIER Scouring Instrument
Recipe :
Alkali——————- 2-5%
Wetting Agent——— 1 %
Soda Ash————— 0.3-0.5% Precaution:
Sequestering Agent— 0.05-0.5%
M:L——————— 1:40 1. Kier should
Temp——————- 90-130ºC
Time——————– 6 Hrs be clean.
Working Procedure: 2. Material
The liquor is prepared into mixing tank by the
should be
above chemicals. packed
Then it brought into the pre heater (Multi-tubular evenly.
Heater) and heated by the steam. 3. No air
Then the hot liquor is pumped and sprayed by the packed
spreder plate on to the fabric which is packed into should be
the Kier.
formed
The temperature of liquor is about 100º c. 4. The fabric
The excess liquor is passes slowly over the packed should be in
cloth and percales through the false bottom of
the kier. liquor
completely.
Then this excess liquor is collected at the bottom
of the Kier and pumped into the auxiliary heater
by a centrifugal pump and this cycle is repeated.
J box
Principle:
J-Box is used for scouring & is termed as J-
box because the shape of the machine is
similar to the letter J.
The fabric is treated with an alkali solution
before it enters the J-Box.
The fabric is passed in the rope form &
evenly piled up & then treated with Steam
for about 60 to 90 min.
Padd Roll
U box
Stenter Machine
 Working procedure of Stenter

• Continuous drying is done in a stenter frame by convection. Blowers

impinge hot air on both the top and bottom of fabric as the fabric
passes through the chamber of the machine. Its frames are equipped
with an endless chain on each side to grip the fabric by both selvages
as it enters chamber.
Dry Processing Equipment
• Calendering is a mechanical finishing process
Calendering
which are widely used in textile industry.
• Calendering plays an important role in the
appearance of the final fabric.
• It increases the marketability of the fabrics.
• Calendering is a process whereby fabric is
compressed by passing it between two or
more rollers under controlled conditions of
time, temperature and pressure in order to
alter its handle, surface texture and
appearance.
• Calendering is an operation carried out on a
fabric to improve its aesthetics
 Rollerbed Steamer

• Rollerbed steamers consist of sections with

tight-strand fabric guiding and the Rollerbed.
• In the tight-strand guiding section the fabric
which has been impregnated with the
bleaching liquor is heated up.
• On the Rollerbed there is sufficient time for
the bleaching reaction process.
• The Rollerbed steamer offers storage room
for big quantities of fabric with long steaming
times by small construction dimensions.
• Dwelling section with pulling device, plaiter
and reversing drum for plaiting on the
Rollerbed.
• Rollerbed with driven pulling rollers.
Exit section with sensing blade. Optional by-
pass device for the Rollerbed.