CHAPTER 4

DR NURUL IZZA BINTI TAIB

UiTM Perak
Kampus Tapah

CHM 131
OBJECTIVES
• Define Chemical Bond, Valence Electrons, Noble Gases and
Octet Stability
• Draw Lewis Electron Dot Symbols, Structure and Formal
Charge
• Explain Octet Rule and It Exceptions
• Explain Ionic Bond, Covalent Bond and Dative Covalent Bond
• Sketch and determine molecular Shape
• Explain Dipole Moment and Bond Polarity
• Identify intermolecular forces between molecules
• Identify the effect of intermolecular forces on melting and
boiling point of substance.
 LEWIS
ELECTRON DOT
SYMBOL (LEWIS
STRUCTURE):
Important In Drawing Correct
Molecular Structure
LEWIS ELECTRON DOT
SYMBOL (Lewis Structure)
• Lewis electron dot symbol /Lewis structure
• Consist of the chemical symbol of an element
• Surrounded by dots representing the
valence electron in an atom of the element.
LEWIS ELECTRON DOT
SYMBOL (Lewis Structure)
• Example of Lewis Structure for ions:
CHEMICAL
BONDS
CHEMICAL BONDS
• Chemical bond is a strong attractive force
that exists between atoms in a substance.
• Four types of chemical bonds:
IONIC BOND
The electrostatic force that holds ions together
in an ionic compound.
FORMATION OF IONIC
COMPOUND
Show the formation of NaCl of using Lewis dot
structure.
FORMATION OF
IONIC COMPOUND
Show the formation of MgCl2 of using Lewis
dot structure.
COVALENT BOND
Covalent compound: Compounds that
contains only covalent bonds.
A covalent bond is a chemical bond in which
two or more electrons are shared by two
atoms.
FORMATION OF COVALENT
COMPOUND
Show the formation of F2 compound of using
Lewis dot structure.
FORMATION OF COVALENT
COMPOUND
Show the formation of F2 compound of using
Lewis dot structure.
FORMATION OF COVALENT
COMPOUND
Show the formation of HBr, H2S and N2
compound of using Lewis dot structure.
TYPE OF
COVALENT BOND

DECREASING STRENGTH

Triple bond > Double Bond > Single Bond

TYPE OF ELECTRONS PAIR
IN COVALENT BOND
Lone pair

Bonding pair
PROPERTIES OF IONIC AND
COVALENT COMPOUNDS
DATIVE COVALENT
BOND
A co-ordinate bond(also called a dative covalent
bond) is a covalent bond (a shared pair of
electrons) in which both electrons come from the
same atom.
 DRAWING
LEWIS
STRUCTURE
DRAWING LEWIS DOT
STRUCTURE
• The Lewis structure is a simple two-dimensional
representation of the positions of electron pairs
around a central atom of a molecule.
• Valence electrons are distributed as:
• bond pairs : (bonding electrons)
• lone pairs : (non bonding electrons)

H Cl 1 lone pairs = 2 non

bonding electrons

1 bond pairs = 2 bonding

electrons
 DRAWING LEWIS STRUCTURE :
AMMONIA (NH3)
Step 1: Calculate the valence electrons
= 5+1+1+1
= 8e
Step 2: - Arrange the atom symmetry. H H
-A central atom: more electropositive.
-H never be central atom. N N
H H
* 2 electrons form 1 bond H H

Step 3: - Number of non bonding (NB).

- NB = no.of valence electron – (no. bond x 2)
= 8 – (3x 2)
= 2 non bonding e
DRAWING LEWIS STRUCTURE :
BORON TRIFLUORIDE (BF3)

Step 1: Calculate the valence electrons

= 3+7+7+7
= 24 e
Step 2: - Arrange the atom symmetry.
-A central atom: more electropositive.
* 2 electrons form 1 bond

Step 3: - Number of non bonding (NB). F F

- NB = no.of valence electron – (no. bond x 2) B
= 24 – (3x 2)
= 18 non bonding e  distribute to F
surrounding atoms
DRAWING LEWIS STRUCTURE :
IONS (OH-)
Step 1: No. of valence electron
= 6+1+1 ‘add’ for negative charge
‘minus’ for positive charge
= 8e
Step 2: - Arrange the atom symmetry.
- A central atom : more electropositive.
* 2 bondings e form 1 bond
Step 3: - Number of non bonding (NB),
- NB = no.of valence electron – (no. bond x 2)
= 8 – ( 1 x 2)
= 6 non bonding e
Put a bracket around the compound,
And write the charge symbol on it.
 REMEMBER!!!
Atom Number of Lone pairs of
bond pair electron

4 bonds
C 4 0 C C C C

N 3 1 N N N 3 bonds

O O 2 bonds
O/S 2 2

F/
1 3 Cl 1 bond
Cl/Br
H 1 0 H 1 bond
FORMAL
CHARGE
 FORMAL CHARGE
• Formal charge is the charge assigned to individual
atoms in a Lewis structure.
• To determine the best Lewis structure.
• Formal charge is calculated as follows:
FORMAL CHARGE

• The number of electrons “owned” by an atom is

determined by its number of bonds and lone
pairs.
• All of its unshared electrons H
• Half of its shared electrons.
 CALCULATING FORMAL
CHARGE
1 3

H1 N H2 H3
Valence
Electron 1 5 1 1

- Electron
owned 1 5 1 1
Formal
Charge 0 0 0 0
CALCULATING FORMAL
CHARGE 1

H1 H2 C O
Valence
Electron 1 1 4 6
- Electron
1 1 4 6
owned
Formal
Charge 0 0 0 0
CALCULATING FORMAL
CHARGE 1

2 4

F1 F2 F3 F4 B
Valence
Electron 7 7 7 7 3
- Electron
7 7 7 7 4
owned
Formal
Charge 0 0 0 0 1
FORMAL CHARGE AND
LEWIS STRUCTURE
•The best Lewis structure…
1. Smaller formal charges (either positive or
negative)
2. A more negative formal charge is assigned to
the most EN atom.
3. Avoid like charges (+ + or - - ) on adjacent
atoms
RESONANCE AND
FORMAL CHARGE
EXAMPLE:
NCO- has 3 possible resonance forms. Choose
the most possible structure.

N C O N C O N C O

A B C
 • First: Determine Formal Charges

-2 0 +1 -1 0 0 0 0 -1

N C O N C O N C O

A B C

• B and C have smaller formal charges;

• this makes them more important than form A.
(rule 1)
• C has a negative charge on O which is the more
electronegative element,
• Therefore C contributes the most to the
resonance hybrid. (rule 2)
RESONANCE AND FORMAL
CHARGE
EXAMPLE:
EXERCISES:
Draw Lewis structure for H2O, CO2, HCN, NH4+
and NO-3

H O H

o c o O

H C N O N O
MOLECULAR
SHAPE
VSEPR MODEL
• Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion
theory.
• Most important factor in determining
geometry is relative repulsion between
electron pairs.
 Surrounding atom

ABx
Central atom

x and y are integers

MOLECULES WITH NO LONE
PAIR (CENTRAL ATOM)
• AB2 : Beryllium Chloride (BeCl2)

Cl Be Cl

2 atoms bonded to central atom

Molecular Geometry :
Linear
• AB3 : Boron Trifluoride (BF3)
• Lewis Structure:

Molecular Geometry :
Trigonal planar
• AB4 : Methane(CH4)
• Lewis Structure:

Molecular Geometry :
Tetrahedral
• AB5 : Phosphorous Pentachloride(PCl5)
• Lewis Structure:

Molecular Geometry :
Trigonal bipyramidal
• AB6 : Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6)
• Lewis Structure:

Molecular Geometry :
Octahedral
MOLECULES WITH LONE PAIR
(CENTRAL ATOM)
• More complicated
• Three types of repulsion:
lone- pair : lone-pair > lone-pair : bonding pair
> bonding pair > bonding pair
 Surrounding atom

ABxEy
Central atom Lone pair on A

x and y are integers

PREDICTING
MOLECULAR GEOMETRY

1. Draw Lewis structure for molecule.

2. Count number of lone pairs on the central atom and

number of atoms bonded to the central atom.

3. Use VSEPR to predict the geometry of the molecule.

AB2E: Sulfur dioxide, SO2
Lewis structure:

bent

Molecular Geometry :
Bent
AB3E: Ammonia, NH3
Lewis structure:

trigonal
pyramidal

Molecular Geometry :
Trigonal pyramidal
AB2E2: Water, H2O
Lewis structure:

bent

Molecular Geometry : Bent

AB4E: Sulfur tetrafluoride, SF4
Lewis structure:

distorted
tetrahedron

Molecular Geometry :
distorted
tetrahedron/seesaw
GEOMETRY OF MOLECULES
WITH MORE THAN ONE
CENTRAL ATOM

• More sense to talk about

the geometry about a
particular atom rather than
the geometry of the
molecule as a whole.
• Because larger molecules Molecular Trigonal
tend to react at a particular geometry Tetrahedral Bent
planar
site in the molecule.
EXERCISE
Predict the molecular geometry of the
following molecule:
1. COCl2 (phosgene; carbonyl chloride)
2. SbF5
3. BrF5
4. SnCl3-
 DIPOLE
MOMENTS &
BOND
POLARITY
DIPOLE MOMENTS AND
POLAR MOLECULE
electron electron
poor rich
region region

H F

 
POLARITY OF THE
MOLECULE
EXAMPLE : CO2

 Bond dipole and dipole

moments are vector
quantities : have
magnitude and vector.
 By adding the
individual bond dipoles,
one can determine the
overall dipole moment
for the molecule.
CO2 is non-polar
EXAMPLE : H2O

• The molecule is bent

• 2 O-H bonds in the
molecule are identical,
and the bond dipoles are
equal in magnitude.
• However, the bond dipoles
do not directly oppose
each other and therefore
do not cancel each other.
H2O is polar
EXAMPLE : NH3

• 3 N-H bonds are identical

• Shape is trigonal
pyramidal
• However, the bond dipoles
do not directly oppose
each other and therefore
do not cancel each other

NH3 is polar
EXERCISE
Determine which molecule is polar and show the
direction of bond dipoles if any.
1. CF4
2. BF3
3. CH3Cl
4. H2S
5. COS
6. CCl2H2
CF4 Non-polar CH3Cl polar

BF3 Non-polar SH2 polar

COS polar CH2Cl2 polar
THE NOBLE GASES

• The Noble gases have complete outer

energy levels
• Cannot get or give any electrons
• The Noble gases are not reactive
• Do not form bonds
 STABILITY OF NOBLE GAS
Noble gas atom : has an octet of 8 electrons in its
valence shell. Thus
• Noble gases are inert
• Not able to take part in any chemical reaction.

In a chemical reaction, an atom achieves an octet

or a noble gas configuration by:
• Transferring its valence electrons
• Sharing a pair of electrons
OCTET RULE
& ITS
EXCEPTIONS
OCTET RULE
• Octet Rule state that atom tend to gain or lose
electrons until they have eight electrons in their
valence shell to form stable compound
• An octet corresponds to an electron
configuration ending with s2p6
• Example: Ne10 : 1s2 2s2 2p6
EXCEPTIONS TO
THE OCTET RULE
ODD NUMBER OF
ELECTRONS
• Though relatively rare and usually quite
unstable and reactive, there are ions and
molecules with an odd number of electrons.
• In freeze condition, NO will form dimer to
produce N2O2. In this structure, the nitrogen is
already get an octet configuration.
LESS THAN AN
OCTET

 Consider BF3:

• Giving boron a filled octet places a negative charge

on the boron and a positive charge on fluorine.
• Boron is less electronegative compare to fluorine.
• This would not be an accurate picture of the
distribution of electrons in BF3.
• Therefore, structures that put a double bond are much
less important.
• If filling the octet of the central atom results in a
negative charge on the central atom and a positive
charge on the more electronegative outer atom, don’t
fill the octet of the central atom.
MORE THAN EIGHT VALENCE
ELECTRONS (AN EXPANDED
OCTET)
• Only applicable to elements in
• 3rd row or below (period 3 and below)
• How?
• Use their empty d-orbitals to accommodate
additional electrons
• The larger the central atom, the larger the
number of atoms that can surround it.
EXAMPLE

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3 3d

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4 3d
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d4

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s 4p 4d 4f
INTERMOLECULAR
FORCES
TYPE OF FORCES
INTERMOLECULAR INTRAMOLECULAR

• Exist between the • Exist within the

molecules and molecule and
influence the physical influence the chemical
properties of the properties of the
substance substance.
• Hydrogen bond, • Ionic bond, covalent
London dipersion bond
forces • Stronger
• Weaker
TYPE OF FORCES

INTRAmolecular

INTERmolecular

Intermolecular vs Intramolecular
• 41 kJ to vaporize 1 mole of water (inter)
• 930 kJ to break all O-H bonds in 1 mole of water
(intra)
INTERMOLECULAR
FORCES

Hydrogen bond > Dipole-dipole Forces >

London Dispersion Forces
LONDON DISPERSION
FORCES
•  The London dispersion force is a temporary
attractive force that results when the electrons in
two adjacent atoms occupy positions that make the
atoms form temporary dipoles,
• Between non-polar molecules
• Examples: interaction between H2, Cl2, F2, CH4

London dispersion
forces
DIPOLE-DIPOLE FORCES
• Dipole-dipole forces is attractive forces between
the positive end of one polar molecule and the
negative end of another polar molecule.
• Between polar molecules
• Examples: Interaction between HCl, HBr, NF3,
CH3Cl
• The strengths of intermolecular attractions
increase with increasing polarity.
HYDROGEN BOND
The hydrogen bond is a special interaction between
they hydrogen atom in a polar N-H, O-H, or F-H
bond and an electronegative O, N, or F atom.

A H… B or A H… A

A & B are N, O, or F
• The strength of intermolecular forces increase
with an increase in molar mass or molecule size.
• Larger atoms have larger electron clouds which
are easier to polarize.
• Molecular size and mass generally parallel each
other, so the dispersion forces tend to increase
in strength with increasing molecular weight as
well.
• Hydrogen bond is stronger than
van der Waal forces
• B.p of NH3, H2O and HF are high
compared to those of the hydrides
of group 15, 16 and 17.
• H2O has b.p higher than HF
although F is more electronegative
than O.
• Each H2O atom is able to form 2
hydrogen bond
• Each HF atom only can form
1hydrogen bond