ETEC225:Quality Control and Technician Project

LECTURE 9: STEP FOUR – EXECUTION (Component Selection)

 The design includes a variety of active and passive components. Before we start
to prototype the circuit we must select and procure the components for use in
constructing the breadboard and prototype. We have to posses a solid understanding
of their function in circuit. Here we lay down a method for selecting the right type
of the following component for a specific application:
• Resistors and Variable Resistors
•Capacitors
•Inductors
•Transformers
•Switches and Relays
•Connectors
•Active Components
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LECTURE 9: STEP FOUR – EXECUTION (Component Selection)

9.1 Resistors
Once we have determined the nominal value for a resistor in the circuit
schematic drawing, we must convert that information into an actual physical resistor
that will be connected in the circuit. For a proper selection, not only the value must
be defined but also the material/construction, tolerance, power rating and
temperature coefficient. Therefore, the criteria for selecting the actual resistor
depends on value, the level of stability, the power level, the tolerance required and
acceptable temperature variation, as well as the cost criteria.
Available type of resistors are:
1. Molded-Carbon Resistors-molded carbon with insulating filler and resin binder
2. Carbon Film Resistors - a resistive carbon film deposited onto a ceramic rod
3. Metal Film Resistors – Nickel-Chromium metal film deposited on a ceramic rod
4. Metal-Oxide Resistors – Tin oxide deposited on a glass rod
5. Wire-Wound Resistors- resistive wire wrapped around insulating rod
Their properties and general specifications are listed in Table 9-1.
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LECTURE 9: STEP FOUR – EXECUTION (Component Selection)

TEMPERAT. POWER COST
TYPE RANGE TOLERANCE COEFFICENT RATINGS FACTOR ADVANTAGE
X=0.02
Carbon All standard ± 5% and -200 to -500 1/8 W, ¼ W, 1X Low cost and
Composition 5% values ± 10% ppm/ºC ½ W, 1-2W small sizes

Carbon All standard ± 5% and -200 ppm/ºC 1/8W, 1/4W, 1X Low cost and
Film 5% values ± 10% to -500 ppm/ºC ½W small sizes

Metal All standard ± 1% +100 ppm/ºC ¼W 2X Tolerance and

Film 1% values TC

Precision All standard ± 1% to ± 2% +60 ppm/ºC ¼ W, ½ W 4X Tolerance and

Metal Oxide 1% values TC

Power Metal All standard ± 5% +100 ppm/ºC ½ W to 3W 15X High power

Oxide 5% values and TC

Precision All standard ± 1% +100 ppm/ºC 1W, 2W and 100X High power
Wire-Wound 1% values 3W and tolerance

Power All standard ± 5% and +200 ppm/ºC 1W and up 75X High power
Wire-Wound 5% values ± 10%

1. Determine which type of resistor have the value and power rating required
2. Determine the minimum temperature coefficient that is required for the application
3. Chose the lowest and most available of the resistor types that will meet the circuit’s requirements.
 ETEC225:Quality Control and Technician Project

LECTURE 9: STEP FOUR – EXECUTION (Component Selection)

9.2 Variable Resistors-Potentiometers

Resistors that can change the value within a certain range. They are
specified by the maximum value they can be adjusted. Inside the potentiometer is
either a wire-wound or continuous film type resistive element whose ends are
connected to the external terminals. The resistance between the two end terminals
is the maximum resistance of the potentiometer. The third terminal called wiper
arm is moved along the surface of the resistive windings to achieve the variable
resistance.
-There are full-size potentiometers and there are small size called trimpots.
-The potentiometer can be mounted on a front panel and wired to the circuit, or PCB
mounted in which case its terminals will be soldered directly to the board traces.
-Variable resistors can be adjusted either through a linear motion (sliders) or rotary
( circular) motion.
- The circular motion potentiometers can be a single-turn or a multi-turn for more
precise adjustment.
- When mounting a potentiometer, check if layout of the terminals provides a logical
change in circuit parameters which the potentiometer controls (CW or CCW
rotation)
ETEC225:Quality Control and Technician Project

Fixed value resistors

of different power Potentiometers
ratings
 ETEC225:Quality Control and Technician Project

LECTURE 9: STEP FOUR – EXECUTION (Component Selection)

9.3 Capacitors
When selecting the capacitor for your design, keep in mind that there are
variety of types available with very different properties. Your goal will be to find a
capacitor with the following:
- The proper capacitance value
- An acceptable tolerance rating
- The proper working voltage
- An acceptable temperature coefficient for a given application
- An insulation resistance, quality factor and dielectric absorption (in some cases)
- Smallest size and cost

LP – parasitic inductance of the plates, leads and contacts

RS – parasitic resistance of the plates, leads and contacts
C- true capacitance of the capacitor
RP – parasitic leakage resistance of the insulation material

Capacitor Equivalent Schematic

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LECTURE 9: STEP FOUR – EXECUTION (Component Selection)

The dielectric absorption is the phenomenon of retaining some of the capacitor

charge upon being quickly discharged and then open circuited. This residual charge
has been absorbed by dielectric. This is crucial property in sampling, timing and
high-speed switching application.

The insulation resistance limit the capacitor ability to completely block the DC
voltage – it is called a DC leakage current. It specifies how good is the capacitor in
holding the DC voltage for a period of time. It is important in applications like
sample-and-hold, integrators and peak detector circuits.

The equivalent capacitor circuit can be converted into an equivalent series

resistance (ESR). DF and Q factor are important in applications like resonant
frequency circuits, precision filters and sample and hold circuits where high Q and
low DF are required.

Lp – typically negligible
C - true capacitance of the capacitor
ESR = Rs + equivalent series impedance for the parallel
RC network at a given frequency
DF = ESR/Xc - dissipation (damping) factor
Q = 1/DF – quality factor
 ETEC225:Quality Control and Technician Project

LECTURE 9: STEP FOUR – EXECUTION (Component Selection)

Capacitor Value Temper. Voltage Freq. Q-factor/
Tolerance Size Cost Advantage
Dielectric Range Coeff. Range Range Absor.
±5% to
Ceramic 1pF-1µF ±15% 25V-20kV High Low/High Small Low Size and Cost
±20%
2pF-10 ±0.5% to 200ppm/
Mica 50V-50kV High High/High Medium Low TP, tolerance
nF ±20% ºC
20pF- ±1% to ±2.5% to Low to Medium Medium Q- factor, low
Plastic Film 30V-10kV High/Low
2.2µF ±20% ±10% medium to large to high absorption
1nF- ±5% to Low to Medium Medium Q- factor ,
Polyester ±10% 30V-10kV High/Low
2.2µF ±20% medium to large to high tolerance
1nF- ±1% to Low to Medium Medium Q- factor ,
Polycarbonate ±10% 30V-10kV High/Low
2.2µF ±10% medium to large to high tolerance
High/
10 pF- ±1% to Low to Medium Medium Low
Polystyrene ±10% 30V-10kV 0.001%-
0.1µF ±10% medium to large to high absorption
0.02%
High/
10 pF- ±1% to Low to Medium Low
Polypropylene ±10% 30V-10kV 0.001%- Large
0.1µF ±10% medium to high absorption
0.02%
±1% to Low to Medium Medium Q factor,
Polyethylene 1 nF-1µF ±10% 30V-10kV High/Low
±10% medium to large to high tolerance
1 nF- ±1% to Low to General
Mylar ±10% 30V-10kV High/Low Medium Medium
2.2µF ±10% medium purpose
Aluminium 0.1µF- -10% to
NA 10V-500V Low NA/High Large Low Polarized
electrolytic 10,000µF +50%
Tantalum 0.1µF- -10% to
NA 10V-35V Low NA/High Small Low Polarized
electrolytic 100µF +50%
ETEC225:Quality Control and Technician Project

LECTURE 9: STEP FOUR – EXECUTION (Component Selection)

ETEC225:Quality Control and Technician Project

LECTURE 9: STEP FOUR – EXECUTION (Component Selection)

 ETEC225:Quality Control and Technician Project

LECTURE 9: STEP FOUR – EXECUTION (Component Selection)

In many circuits there is two bypass filter capacitors but with different
values ( and types). The reason is that the two capacitors have different ESR which
changes with frequency. The aluminium electrolyte capacitors are not efficient
above 10 kHz but the ceramic for instance, covers the range between 1kH to 1 MHz;
therefore neither capacitor by itself can perform the complete bypassing for all
frequencies.
Two different types of
capacitors function as a tag
team when filtering out AC
signals in DC circuits.
In this A/D conversion example
a value of 0.01µF at 20V is
required. The temperature range
is 0ºC to 85ºC . The capacitor
must be able to hold the sample
value and therefore has a
minimum DA - like polystyrene,
polypropylene or teflon. But
polystyrene cannot be used due
to temperature limitation. Teflon
has higher DA and higher cost.
Polypropylene has lower DA and
lager size but it’s cheaper.
 ETEC225:Quality Control and Technician Project

LECTURE 9: STEP FOUR – EXECUTION (Component Selection)

As with resistor, variable and trimming capacitors are available to provide
for adjustable capacitance values. There are two major groups: air-variable and
trimmer capacitors. Air-variable capacitors use interleaved set of metal plates with
air as the dielectric to change the capacitance between 1pF to about 200pF. They
are used in tuning resonance circuit in front-end of a radio transceivers. Trimmer
capacitors are made of mica, ceramic and glass dielectrics. Mica has good stability,
low temperature coefficient, low inductance and cost. Ceramic has high Q-factors,
low inductance and small size but is susceptible to shocks and vibrations. Glass
posses a high voltage endurance, linear capacitance change and they are coming in
completely sealed enclosures.

9.4 Inductors
Inductors are the least used passive electronic components because of
their relative size and cost. Besides, the desired effect of the inductance can be
achieved with a cheaper and smaller capacitive circuit. Inductors are used in filter
and tuned circuits, current limiters and as ripple filters in power supplies. The 3
principle types of inductors are based on type of the core used: air core, iron core
and ferrite core inductors. The core is the material that the conductor coil is
wrapped around. The coils are covered with an insulating layer (varnish) to prevent
conduction between the adjacent coils.
 ETEC225:Quality Control and Technician Project

LECTURE 9: STEP FOUR – EXECUTION (Component Selection)

•Air Core Inductors

These inductors are available from a few tenths of µH (microhenry) to several
hundreds of µH. They are used in the frequency range from 100kHz to 1 GHz. Very
small air core inductors can be constructed by making loops of wire or PCB traces.
• Iron Core Inductors
They are available from 0.1 to 120 mH with a DC resistance ranging from a few to
several hundreds ohms. Q factors are about 50 but the DC current are limited to
about 100mA.
•Variable Inductor
Adjustable magnetic core inductors are available that vary inductance by moving the
magnetic core in or out of the coil with screw adjustment
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LECTURE 9: STEP FOUR – EXECUTION (Component Selection)

 ETEC225:Quality Control and Technician Project

LECTURE 9: STEP FOUR – EXECUTION (Component Selection)

9.5 Transformers
A transformer consists of two separate coils that are wrapped around a
closed magnetic circuit. They are used to step down, step up, isolate and impedance
match AC circuits. The ratio of the number of turns in the primary coil to the
secondary turns is called the turns ratio. There are many variations in secondary
configurations , primary configurations, secondary voltages and power.
•Step-Down transformer is the most common application. It simply reduces the
amplitude of the power supply AC voltage.
•Step-Up transformers are used when higher voltage than main power supply voltage
is required.
•Isolation transformers have turns ratio of one. They are used solely to isolate AC
voltage from another AC voltage of the same amplitude. The isolation is based on
the fact that there is no electrical connection between the primary and secondary
sides.
•Impedance matching transformers are used when maximum power transfer is
required between the source and the load of a different impedances. The ideal turns
ratio is equal to the square root of the R load/Rsource ratio.
 ETEC225:Quality Control and Technician Project

LECTURE 9: STEP FOUR – EXECUTION (Component Selection)

9.6 Switches and Relays

Switches are mechanical devices used to switch on/off electrical circuits. There
are two basic types:
a) Maintained – they maintain the switch position after being engaged until they are
reposition mechanically
b) Momentary – they are spring loaded and revert back to their normal state after
being released.
Switching contacts are designated as a Common (C), normally open (NO) and normally
closed (NC). Switches are classified by the term poles and throws. Poles are
number of sets of contacts included in a switch. Multi-pole switches are required
when there is need to control several electrical circuits at once. The number
throws designates how many position each pole of the switch has. A switch that
makes or breaks only two points is a “ single-throw” switch. A switch that makes
or breaks one common contact to NO or NC contact is a “ double-throw” switch. A
rotary switch can have multiple throw contacts.
Switches have their current and voltage ratings specified by manufacturer.
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LECTURE 9: STEP FOUR – EXECUTION (Component Selection)

Relays are electromechanical or solid-state devices that can be defined as voltage-

controlled switches. When a specified voltage is applied to the input, the output
contacts changes states. Relay may feature either AC or DC coil, that, when
energized, pulls in the armature which changes the contact position. The poles
and throws specifications are the same as those described for switches.
Contactors are large relays usually used in motor starter circuits. Selection of these
relays involves the mechanical size and configuration, the coil voltage, the
contact arrangement and contact voltage and current ratings.
Solid-state relays are the electronic equivalent to electromechanical relays. They
also have input circuit to which the specified voltage or current is applied to
change the state of the output contacts. However, the output contacts are an
electronic switching device ( BJT, MOSFET, or TRIAC) depending whether the
circuit operate with DC or AC voltages. Solid-state relays offer a significant
improvement in switching life over electromechanical relays. The relative
disadvantage comes from the fact that they to not galvanically disconnect output
terminals ( leakage current is present).
    
   
   
ETEC225:Quality Control
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LECTURE 9: STEP FOUR – EXECUTION (Component Selection)
 
 
 
 
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
 ETEC225:Quality Control and Technician Project

LECTURE 9: STEP FOUR – EXECUTION (Component Selection)

9.7 Connectors
Connectors are very important aspect of any electronic design. Connector make
electrical connection from one circuit element to another. There are 3 types of
connector:
a) Wire-to-wire
b) Wire-to-PCB
c) PCB-to-PCB
The key aspect which guides the selection of a connector for specific application
are as follows:
1. Application type (wire-to-wire, PCB-to-wire, etc)
2. Mounting type ( panel, PCB, none)
3. Voltage across contacts
4. Current through contacts
5. Size
6. Number of contacts
7. Terminator type ( solder, crimp, etc)
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LECTURE 9: STEP FOUR – EXECUTION (Component Selection)

8. Environmental aspect ( temperature, humidity, seal)

9. Contact resistance (depends on contact material)
10. Keyed or not
11. Insertion force
12. Reliability ( number of disconnect over life)
13. Cost and ease of assembly

The most common types of connectors are:

1. PCB Edge Connectors
2. Flat Cable Connectors
3. D-Type Connectors
4. Coaxial Connectors
5. Circular Connectors
6. Military Connectors
7. ZIF Connectors
ETEC225:Quality Control and Technician Project

LECTURE 9: STEP FOUR – EXECUTION (Component Selection)

 ETEC225:Quality Control and Technician Project

LECTURE 9: STEP FOUR – EXECUTION (Component Selection)

9.8 Active Components

The specifications for most active components starts with the section “Absolute
Maximum ratings” where the maximum ratings for all parameters are listed. It is
imperative that circuit application will not exceed these ratings at any point of
operation. There should be at least 10-20% safety factor between the maximum
value of parameter in a circuit and the absolute maximum value listed.
The key parameters of concern are:
a) Maximum power supply voltage
b) Maximum input voltage
c) Maximum differential input voltage
d) Maximum output current (source)
e) Maximum output current (sink)
f) Maximum operating temperature
g) Frequency of operation ( slew rate, rise time, delays , etc)