AP Psychology

Week#3: Sept 13, 2022

Teacher: Andrew Trigg
Topics: 1. Intro to Biopsychology
2.Neurons and their function
AP Classroom join code:
Neural & Hormonal Systems:
Biology, Behavior, and Mind
 Everything psychological — every idea, mood or urge — is biological.
 Psychologists working from a biological perspective study the links
between biology and behavior.

 Remember: humans are biopsychosocial systems: biological,

psychological, and social-cultural factors interact to influence behavior.

 Our understanding of the relationship between the brain and mind has
evolved over time – and there is still a lot to learn!
A Wrongheaded Theory

Despite initial acceptance of Franz Gall’s speculations, bumps on the skull tell us
nothing about the brain’s underlying functions. However, some of his
assumptions have held true, i.e. different parts of the brain control different
aspects of behavior (but obviously not the ones Gall proposed).
Neural & Hormonal Systems:
Biology, Behavior, and Mind

 During the past century, researchers have discovered that…

 Nerve cells conduct electricity and communicate through chemical

messages across tiny separating gaps

 Specific brain systems serve specific functions and information is

integrated to construct a wide range of experiences

 The adaptive brain is wired by experience

Neuronal Structure: Key Terms

 Neurons
 Dendrites
 Refractory period
 Axons
 Threshold
 Glial cells (glia)
 All-or-none response
 Synapses
 Neurotransmitters
 Reuptake
The Nervous System

It starts with an individual nerve

cell, a neuron.
•Neurons have many of the same
features as other cells
– Nucleus
– Cytoplasm
– Cell membrane
 3 main tasks of neurons
 Bundles of neurons are called nerves.
 A neuron exists to perform 3 tasks:
1) Receive information from the neurons that feed it.
2) Carry information down its length.
3) Pass the information on to the next neuron.
 How Neurons Work
 The dendrite, or “receiver” part of the neuron, which accepts most of the incoming
messages.
 Consists of finely branched fibers.
 Selectively permeable
How Neurons Work

Dendrites complete their job by passing the incoming message on to the central
part of the neuron called the soma/cell body (life support machinery).
The function of the soma is to assess all messages the cell receives and pass
on the appropriate information, at the appropriate time.
How Neurons Work
 When the soma decides to pass-on a message, it sends the message
down the axon.
 The axon is a single, larger “transmitter” fiber that extends from the
soma.(It’s a “one-way street”)
 Axons
 The axon is the extension of the
neuron through which the neural
impulses are sent.

 Carries information to the next

cell

 In some neurons, (e.g. those of the

brain), the axons are very short.

 In others, like those in the leg, can

reach 3 feet long.
 Myelin Sheath

 Protects and insulates the axon and

the electric signal

 Speeds up the neural impulse (action

potential)

 Made up of Schwann cells (specific

type of glial cells)
 Multiple sclerosis (MS)
The myelin sheath is destroyed

Leads to diminished or complete

loss of neural functioning in
those damaged cells, particularly
associated with muscle control
and movement

Symptoms include fatigue,

changes in vision, balance
problems, and numbness,
tingling, or muscle weakness in
the arms or legs
 3 Types of Neurons
 Neurons can be different sizes and shapes, but all share a similar
structure and function.

 Neurons are broken into three categories based on their location

and function:
-Sensory Neurons
-Motor Neurons
-Interneurons
 Sensory neurons
·Sensory neurons, or afferent neurons, carry (one way) traffic from
the sense organs toward the brain.

They communicate all your sensory experience to the brain,

including vision, hearing, taste, touch, smell, pain and balance (see
Unit 4)

·
Motor neurons
 Motor neurons, or efferent neurons, form the one-way routes that
transport messages away from the brain to the muscles, organs and
glands.
Interneurons
Sensory and motor neurons don’t communicate directly with each
other. Instead, they rely on interneurons

 Make up the majority of neurons

 Relay messages from sensory neurons,

other interneurons or motor neurons in
complex pathways.
How does a Neuron fire?

 Resting potential
 The axon gets its energy from charged ions.
 Has a slight negative charge (which can be
easily upset)

 Action potential
 When the cell becomes excited, it triggers,
which reverses the charge and causes the
electrical signal to race along the axon.
Absolute Threshold

 The neuron is a mini decision maker.

 It receives information from hundreds or thousands of other
neurons. Some are excitatory (like pushing the gas pedal).
 Others are inhibitory (like pushing the breaks).
 If the excitatory signals minus the inhibitory ones exceed a
minimum intensity (absolute threshold) the action potential is
realized.
Refractory Period
 Each action potential is followed by a brief recharging
period known as the refractory period.

 After the refectory period, the neuron is capable of

another action potential.
The Neural Impulse
Absolute refractory period
Period immediately after an action
potential when another action
potential cannot occur

Relative refractory period

Period following absolute
refractory period when a neuron
will only respond to a stronger than
normal impulse
 All or Nothing

 The axon either “fires” or it doesn’t (all-or-none principal)

A strong stimulus like a slap can trigger more neurons to

fire, more often, but not any stronger. (Squeezing a trigger
harder won’t make the bullet go faster.)
Depolarization & Polarization
 Depolarization
 describes an axon that is firing
 Positive ions enter the axon,
and cause other positive ions
to move into the axon (as a
neural impulse down the axon)
 Polarization
 describes an axon that is not
firing
 Outside the Axon = +ve ions
 Inside the Axon= -ve ions
Neural Communication

Cell body end

of axon

Direction of neural impulse: toward axon terminals

The Neural Impulse

Graded Potentials (see extra handout)

Neural impulse: a temporary shift in the electric charge in a tiny

area of a neuron; transmitted along the cell membrane. (It may
fade away if it doesn’t reach its excitement threshold.)

Many subthreshold depolarizations are added together to

produce an action potential (summation)
 How Cells Connect
 Neurons don’t actually touch each other to
pass on information.

 The gap between neurons is called the

synapse (synaptic space or synaptic cleft)

 It acts as an electrical insulator, preventing

an electrical charge from racing to the next
cell.

 Composed of the terminal button of one

neuron, the synaptic space, and the dendrites
or cell body of the receiving neuron
 How Cells Connect

 To pass across the synaptic gap

an electrical message must go
through a change in the
terminal buttons.

 This change is called synaptic

transmission, and the electrical
charge is turned into a chemical
message that flows easily across
the synapse.
 Homework

 Read the extra handout: Neurons (AP Psychology Workshop). (Some

details go beyond what the AP exam will test you on). Still, it’s one of the
best brief explanations of how neurons work I’ve come across!

 You may also find the following videos helpful:

 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C4Gt322-XxI#t=173
 http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/neuroscience/madneuron/ (It
requires Adobe Flash player)