UNIT

Engineering Materials
Mechanical Materials
 Introduction
• Engineering materials refers to the group of materials
that are used in the construction of man-made
structures and components.
• The primary function of an engineering material is to
withstand applied loading without breaking and without
exhibiting excessive deflection.
• The major classifications of engineering materials
include metals, polymers, ceramics, and composites.
 Contents
 Metals  Cast Iron
oFerrous Alloys oAluminum Alloys
 Carbon Steel oNickel Alloys
 Low-Alloy Steel oCopper Alloys
 Tool Steel oTitanium Alloys
 Stainless Steel
 Contents
 Polymers  Ceramics
o Thermoplastic o Glass
Polymers o Cements
o Thermosetting o Clay Products
Polymers
o Refractories
o Elastomers
o Abrasives
 Contents
 Composites
o Particulate Composites
o Fibrous Composites
o Laminated Composites
 Metals
• Metals are the most commonly used class of engineering material.
Metal alloys are especially common, and they are formed by
combining a metal with one or more other metallic and/or non-
metallic materials. The combination usually occurs through a
process of melting, mixing, and cooling. The goal of alloying is to
improve the properties of the base material in some desirable way.

• Metal alloy compositions are described in terms of the percentages

of the various elements in the alloy, where the percentages are
measured by weight.
 Ferrous Alloys
• Ferrous alloys have iron as the base element. These alloys
and include steels and cast irons. Ferrous alloys are the
most common metal alloys in use due to the abundance of
iron, ease of production, and high versatility of the material.
The biggest disadvantage of many ferrous alloys is low
corrosion resistance.

• Carbon is an important alloying element in all ferrous alloys.

In general, higher levels of carbon increase strength and
hardness, and decrease ductility and weldability.
 Carbon Steel

• Carbon steels are basically just mixtures of iron and

carbon. They may contain small amounts of other
elements, but carbon is the primary alloying ingredient. The
effect of adding carbon is an increase in strength and
hardness.

• Most carbon steels are plain carbon steels, of which there

are several types.
 Low-Carbon Steel

• Low-carbon steel has less than about 0.30% carbon. It is

characterized by low strength but high ductility(maléabilité).
Some strengthening can be achieved through cold working,
but it does not respond well to heat treatment.
• Low-carbon steel is very weldable(soudable) and is inexpensive
to produce. Common uses for low-carbon steel include wire,
structural shapes, machine parts, and sheet metal.
 Medium-Carbon Steel

• Medium-carbon steel contains between about 0.30% to

0.70% carbon. It can be heat treated to increase
strength, especially with the higher carbon contents.
Medium-carbon steel is frequently used for axles, gears,
shafts, and machine parts.
 High-Carbon Steel

• High-carbon steel contains between about 0.70% to

1.40% carbon. It has high strength but low ductility.
Common uses include drills, cutting tools, knives, and
springs.
 Low-Alloy Steel

• Low-alloy steels, also commonly called alloy steels, contain less

than about 8% total alloying ingredients. Low-alloy steels are
typically stronger than carbon steels and have better corrosion
resistance.
• Some low-alloy steels are designated as high-strength low-alloy
(HSLA) steels. What sets HSLA steels apart from other low-alloy
steels is that they are designed to achieve specific mechanical
properties rather than to meet a specific chemical composition.
 Tool Steel

• Tool steels are primarily used to make tooling for use in

manufacturing, for example cutting tools, drill bits,
punches, dies, and chisels.
• Alloying elements are typically chosen to optimize
hardness, wear resistance, and toughness.
 Stainless Steel
• Stainless steels(inoxydable) have good corrosion resistance,
mostly due to the addition*

of chromium as an alloying ingredient. Stainless steels have a

chromium composition of at least 11%.
• Passivation occurs with chromium content at or above 12%,
in which case a protective inert film of chromic oxide forms
over the material and prevents oxidation.
• The corrosion resistance of stainless steel is a result of this
passivation.
 Austenitic Stainless Steel

• Austenitic stainless steel is the most common form of stainless steel.

• It has the highest general corrosion resistance among stainless steels.
• It is also the most weldable of the stainless steels due to its low
carbon content. It can only be strengthened through cold work.
• Austenitic stainless steels are generally more expensive than other
stainless steels due to nickel content.
• Austenitic stainless steels are not magnetic, although ferritic and
martensitic stainless steels are.
• Common applications include fasteners, pressure vessels, and piping.
 Ferritic Stainless Steel

• Ferritic stainless steel has high chromium content and

medium carbon content.
• It has good corrosion resistance rather than high
strength.
• It generally cannot be strengthened through heat
treatment, and can only be strengthened via cold work.
 Martensitic Stainless Steel
• Martensitic stainless steel has high carbon content (up to 2%)
and low chromium content.
• This higher carbon content is the primary difference between
ferritic and martensitic stainless steels.
• Due to the high carbon content, it is difficult to weld.
• It can be strengthened through heat treatment.
• Common applications include cutlery and surgical
instruments.
 Duplex Stainless Steel

• Duplex stainless steel contains both austenitic and ferritic

phases.
• It can have up to twice the strength of austenitic stainless
steel.
• It also has a high toughness, corrosion resistance, and wear
resistance.
• Duplex stainless steel is generally as weldable as austenitic,
but it has a temperature limit.
Precipitation-Hardenable Stainless Steel

• Precipitation-hardenable stainless steel can be

strengthened through precipitation hardening, which is
an age hardening process.

• These materials have high strength as well as high

resistance to corrosion and temperature.
 Cast Iron

• Cast iron is a ferrous alloy containing high levels of carbon, generally

greater than 2%.

• The carbon present in the cast iron can take the form of graphite or
carbide.

• Cast irons have a low melting temperature which makes them well
suited to casting.
 Gray Cast Iron

• Gray cast iron is the most common type.

• The carbon is in the form of graphite flakes.

• Gray cast iron is a brittle material, and its compressive

strength is much higher than its tensile strength.

• The fracture surface of gray cast iron has a gray color, which
is how it got its name.
 Ductile Cast Iron (Nodular Cast Iron)

• The addition of magnesium to gray cast iron improves the ductility of

the material.
• The resulting material is called nodular cast iron because the
magnesium causes the graphite flakes to form into spherical nodules.
• It is also called ductile cast iron.
• Nodular cast iron has good strength, ductility, and machinability.

• Common uses include crankshafts, gears, pump bodies, valves, and

machine parts.
 White Cast Iron

• White cast iron has carbon in the form of carbide, which

makes the material hard, brittle, and difficult to
machine.

• White cast iron is primarily used for wear-resisting

components as well as for the production of malleable
cast iron.
 Malleable Cast Iron

• Malleable cast iron is produced by heat treating white

cast iron.

• The heat treatment improves the ductility of the

material while maintaining its high strength.
 Aluminum Alloys
• Pure aluminum is soft and weak, but it can be alloyed to increase strength. Pure
aluminum has good corrosion resistance due to an oxide coating that forms over
the material and prevents oxidation. Alloying the aluminum tends to reduce its
corrosion resistance.

• Aluminum is a widely used material, particularly in the aerospace industry, due to

its light weight and corrosion resistance. Despite the fact that aluminum alloys are
generally not as strong as steels, they nevertheless have a good strength-to-
weight ratio.

• Aluminum alloys are named according to a 4-digit number, where the first number
indicates the major alloying element. A processing code follows the 4-digit
number, which indicates the condition and treatment of the material.
 Nickel Alloys

• Nickel alloys have high temperature and corrosion

resistance.
• Common alloying ingredients include copper, chromium,
and iron.
• Common nickel alloys include Monel, K-Monel, Inconel,
and Hastelloy.
 Copper Alloys
• Copper alloys are generally characterized as being electrically conductive, having
good corrosion resistance, and being relatively easy to form and cast. While they
are a useful engineering material, copper alloys are also very attractive and are
commonly used in decorative applications.
• Copper alloys primarily consist of brasses and bronzes. Zinc is the major alloying
ingredient in brass. Tin is a major alloying element in most bronzes. Bronzes may
also contain aluminum, nickel, zinc, silicon, and other elements. The bronzes are
typically stronger than the brasses while still maintaining good corrosion
resistance.
• The aluminum bronze alloys are very hard and have good wearing properties, and
so are commonly used in bearing applications. The beryllium copper alloys have
good strength and fatigue properties, and good wear resistance when lubricated
properly. Beryllium copper is commonly used for springs, bearings, and bushings.
 Titanium Alloys
• Titanium alloys are light, strong, and have high corrosion resistance. Their density is
much lower than steel, and their strength-to-weight ratio is excellent. For this reason,
titanium alloys are used fairly commonly, especially in the aerospace industry. One
primary downside of titanium alloys is the high cost.

• There are three categories of titanium alloys: alpha alloys, beta alloys, and alpha-
beta alloys. Alpha alloys do not respond to heat treatment and are instead
strengthened through solid-solution strengthening processes. The beta and alpha-
beta alloys can be strengthened by heat treatment, primarily through precipitation
hardening.

• Titanium alloys are identified using the percentages of alloying elements, for example
Ti-6Al-4V.
 Polymers

• Polymers are materials that consist of molecules formed

by long chains of repeating units. They may be natural
or synthetic.
• Many useful engineering materials are polymers, such
as plastics, rubbers, fibers, adhesives, and coatings.

• Polymers are classified as thermoplastic polymers,

thermosetting polymers (thermosets), and elastomers.
 Thermoplastic Polymers
• The classification of thermoplastics and thermosets is based on their
response to heat.
• If heat is applied to a thermoplastic, it will soften and melt.
• Once it is cooled, it will return to solid form.
• Thermoplastics do not experience any chemical change through
repeated heating and cooling (unless the temperature is high enough
to break the molecular bonds).
• They are therefore very well suited to injection molding.
 Ceramics

• Ceramics are solid compounds that may consist of metallic or

nonmetallic elements.

• The primary classifications of ceramics include glasses, cements, clay

products, refractories, and abrasives.

• Ceramics generally have excellent corrosion and wear resistance, high

melting temperature, high stiffness, and low electrical and thermal
conductivity.

• Ceramics are also very brittle materials.

 Glass
• Glasses are common materials and are seen in applications including
windows, lenses, and containers. Glasses are amorphous, whereas the
other ceramics are mainly crystalline. Primary advantages of glasses
include transparency and ease of fabrication. The base element of most
glasses is silica, and other components can be added to modify its
properties. Common processes used to form glass include:
 heating until melting, then pouring into molds to cast into useful shapes
 heating until soft, then rolling
 heating until soft, then blowing into desired shapes
 Cements
• Cements are materials that, after mixing with water, form a paste that
then hardens.

• Because of this characteristic, cements can be formed into useful

shapes while in paste form before they harden into rigid structures.
Plaster of paris is one common cement.

• The most common cement is called Portland cement, which is made by

mixing clay and limestone and then firing at high temperature.
 Cements
• Portland cement is used to form concrete, which is made by
mixing it with sand, gravel, and water.
• It can also be mixed with sand and water to form mortar.
• Like other ceramics, cements are weak in tension but strong in
compression.
• Cement is very inexpensive to produce, and it is used widely in
the construction of buildings, bridges, and other large
structures.
 Clay Products
• Clay is a very common ceramic material.
• It can be mixed with water, shaped, and then hardened
through firing at high temperature.
• The two primary classifications of clay products
include structural clay products and whitewares.
• Structural clay products see applications including bricks, tiles,
and piping.
• Whitewares see applications including pottery and plumbing
fixtures.
 END
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