BMS 251

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF PHYSIOLOGY, EXCITABLE

TISSUES AND AUTONOMIC NERVEOUS SYSTEM (ANS)

TOPIC
THE CELL

LECTURER

MR EPHRAIM IME EKANEM

CELL
The structural and functional unit of the living body.
General Characteristics of Cell
 The Maintains the medium, i.e. the environment for its survival.
 The shows immediate response to the entry of invaders like bacteria or toxic
substances into the body.
 The reproduces by division, except the neuron which do not reproduce.
 Needs nutrition and oxygen.
 Produces its own energy necessary for its growth, repair and other activities
 Eliminates carbon dioxide and other metabolic wastes.
TISSUE
 Group of cells having similar function.
 Tissues are classified into four major types called the primary tissues.
Examples are:
 Muscle tissue (skeletal muscle, smooth muscle and cardiac muscle)
 Nervous tissue (neurons and supporting cells)
 Epithelial tissue (squamous, columnar and cuboidal epithelial cells)
 Connective tissue (connective tissue, cartilage, bone and blood).
ORGAN
 Is the structure that is formed by two or more primary types of tissues, which execute the
functions of the organ.
 Some organs are composed of all the four types of primary tissues.
Types of Organs
 Tubular or hollow organs
 Compact or parenchymal organs.
Examples are:
 Gallbladder, pancreas, kidneys, endocrine glands, brain, heart, lungs, stomach, intestine,
liver.
SYSTEM
It is the group of organs that work together to carry out specific functions of the
body.
Specific functions of the organ system:
 Digestive system :- For digestion of food particles.
 Excretory system:- For elimination of unwanted substances.
 Cardiovascular system :- For transport of substances between the organs.
 Respiratory system:- Supply of oxygen and removal of carbon dioxide.
 Reproductive system: For reproduction of species.
 Endocrine system:- For regulation, maintenance of normal life and growth of the
body.
 Musculoskeletal system:- For stability and movements of the body.
 Nervous system: For locomotion and other activities including the intellectual
functions.
Cell Composition
Water :70-85%
Ions
Proteins: 10-20%
Lipids : 2-95%
Carbohydrates : 1-6 %

Water:
The principal fluid medium of the cell present in most cells except fat
cell.
Proteins :
It is divided into two types :
 Structural Proteins:
Present in the cell mainly in the form of long filaments (mainly
form microtubules that provide the cytoskeletons of such
cellular organelles.
 Functional Proteins:
Composed of combination of few molecules in tubular globular
form (they are mainly the enzymes of the cell)
Lipids:
 Important lipids are : phospholipids and cholesterol
 It constitutes only about 2% of the total cell mass.
 They are mainly insoluble in water and therefore are used to
form the cell membrane and intracellular membrane barriers
that separate the different cell compartments.
 Neutral fat (triglycerides): in fat cell triglycerides account
for 95% of the cell mass.
 The fat stored in theses cells represent the body’s main
storehouse of energy-giving nutrients.
Carbohydrates :
 Little structural function in the cell and play a major role in
nutrition of the cell.
 Most human cells do not maintain large stores of
carbohydrates, the amount usually averages about 1% of their
total mass but increase to 3% in muscle cell and 6% in liver .
STRUCTURE OF THE CELL
 The cell is formed by a cell body and a membrane covering the cell
body called the cell membrane.
 The nucleus and cytoplasm surrounding the nucleus are the two parts
of the cell .
 Therefore, the structure of the cell is studied under the following:
 Cell membrane
 Cytoplasm
 Nucleus
CELL MEMBRANE
 It is a protective sheath that envelops the cell body also known as
plasma membrane or plasmalemma.
 It separates outside fluid (extracellular fluid) and the intracellular
fluid.
 It is a semipermeable membrane and allows free exchange of certain
substances between ECF and ICF.
 Thickness of the cell membrane varies from 75 to 111 Å.
COMPOSITION OF CELL MEMBRANE
 Proteins (55%)
 Lipids (40%)
 Carbohydrates (5%)
Protein Layers of the Cell Membrane
 Protein layers of the cell membrane are electron-dense layers.
 These layers cover the two surfaces of the central lipid layer.
 It gives protection to the central lipid layer.
 The protein substances present in these layers are mostly glycoproteins.
Types of Protein Molecules
 Integral proteins or Transmembrane proteins.
 Peripheral proteins or Peripheral membrane proteins.
 Integral proteins or Transmembrane proteins.
 Proteins that pass through entire thickness of cell membrane from one side to
the other side.
 They are tightly bound with the cell membrane.
 It provide “specificity” to a membrane.
It is also defined by mode of association with the lipid bilayer
Examples
 Cell adhesion proteins
 Cell junction proteins
 Some carrier (transport) proteins
 Channel proteins
 Some hormone receptors
 Antigens
 Some enzymes.
 Peripheral Proteins or Peripheral Membrane Proteins
 The proteins which are partially embedded in the outer and inner surfaces of the
cell membrane.
 They do not penetrate the cell membrane.
They dissociate readily from the cell membrane and loosely bound with integral
proteins or lipid layer of cell membrane
Examples:
 Some carrier (transport) proteins
 Some enzymes
 Proteins of cytoskeleton
Functions of Proteins in Cell Membrane
 Receptor proteins serve as the receptor sites for hormones and neurotransmitters
 Some of the protein molecules form the enzymes and control chemical
(metabolic) reactions within the cell membrane
 Some proteins act as antigens and induce the process of antibody formation
 Cell adhesion molecules or the integral proteins are responsible for attachment
of cells to their neighbors or to basal lamina.
 Integral proteins provide the structural integrity of the cell membrane.
 Channel proteins help in the diffusion of water soluble substances like glucose
and electrolytes.
 Carrier or transport proteins help in the transport of substances across the cell
membrane by means of active or passive transport.
 Some carrier proteins act as pumps, by which ions are transported actively
across the cell membrane.
Lipid Layers of the Cell Membrane
 It is a bilayered structure which is formed by a thin film of lipids.
 It is fluid in nature and not a solid structure.
 The portions of the membrane move from one point to another point along the
surface of the cell.
 The materials dissolved in lipid layer also move to all areas of the cell
membrane.
Types of lipids
 Phospholipids
 Cholesterol
Phospholipids
 Are lipid substances that contains phosphorus and fatty acids.
 Phospholipid molecules are arranged in two layers.
 Each phospholipid molecule resembles the headed pin in shape.
 The outer part of the phospholipid molecule is called the head portion and the
inner portion is called the tail portion
 Head portion is the polar end and it is soluble in water and has strong affinity
for water (hydrophilic).
 Tail portion is the non-polar end, it is insoluble in water and repelled by water
(hydrophobic).
 Two layers of phospholipids are arranged in such a way that the hydrophobic
tail portions meet in the center of the membrane.
 Hydrophilic head portions of outer layer face the ECF and those of the inner
layer face ICF(cytoplasm).

Lipids of the cell membrane

Cholesterol
 It is arranged in between the phospholipid molecules.
 Cholesterol helps to ‘pack’ the phospholipids in the membrane
because phospholipids are soft and oily in structure.
 It is responsible for the structural integrity of lipid layer of the cell
membrane.
Functions of Lipid Layer in Cell Membrane
 It is a semipermeable membrane and allows only the fat-soluble
substances to pass through it.
 fat-soluble substances like oxygen, carbon dioxide and alcohol can
pass through this lipid layer.
 The water-soluble substances such as glucose, urea and electrolytes
cannot pass through this layer.
Carbohydrates of the Cell Membrane
 Some are attached to proteins and form glycoproteins
(proteoglycans) while some are attached to lipids and form
glycolipids.
 They form a thin and loose covering over the entire surface of the
cell membrane called glycocalyx.
Functions of Carbohydrates in Cell Membrane
 They are negatively charged and do not permit the negatively
charged substances to move in and out of the cell.
 Glycocalyx from the neighboring cells helps in the tight fixation of
cells with one another.
 Some function as the receptors for some hormones.
FUNCTIONS OF CELL MEMBRANE
 Metabolites and other waste products from the cell are excreted out
through the cell membrane.
 Oxygen enters the cell from the blood and carbon dioxide leaves the
cell and enters the blood through the cell membrane.
 Cell membrane is responsible for the maintenance of shape and size
of the cell.
 Cell membrane protects the cytoplasm and the organelles present in
the cytoplasm.
 Cell membrane acts as a semipermeable membrane, which allows
only some substances to pass through it and acts as a barrier for other
substances.
 Nutrients are absorbed into the cell through the cell membrane.
CYTOPLASM
 The cytoplasm is the jellylike material formed by 80% of water.
 It contains a clear liquid portion called cytosol and various particles
of different shape and size.
 These particles are proteins, carbohydrates, lipids or electrolytes in
nature.
 Cytoplasm contains many organelles with distinct structure and
function.
 Cytoplasm is made up of two areas:
 Ectoplasm: Peripheral part of cytoplasm, situated just beneath the
cell membrane.
 Endoplasm: Inner part of cytoplasm, interposed.
CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
 Organelles with limiting membrane
 Endoplasmic reticulum
 Golgi apparatus
 Lysosome
 Peroxisome
 Centrosome and centrioles
 Secretory vesicles
 Mitochondria
 Nucleus
 Organelles without limiting membrane
 Ribosomes
 Cytoskeleton
The Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Network of tubular and flat vesicular structures
 Membrane is similar to (and contiguous with) the plasma membrane
 Space inside the tubules is called the endoplasmic matrix
 The diameter of the lumen is about 400 to 700Å.
 The endoplasmic reticulum forms the link between nucleus and cell membrane
by connecting the cell membrane with the nuclear membrane.
Types of Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Rough or Granular ER
 Smooth ER (a Granular ER)
Rough or Granular Endoplasmic Reticulum
 The outer membrane surface covered with ribosomes.
 Newly synthesized proteins are extruded into the ER matrix.
 Proteins are “processed” inside the matrix.
 They are cross-linked, folded, glycosylated (N-linked) and cleaved.
Functions of Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Synthesis of proteins.
 Degradation of worn-out organelles.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (a Granular ER)
 Part of ER has no attached ribosomes.
 It is the site of lipid synthesis e.g. phospholipids and cholesterol.
 Growing ER membrane buds continuously forming transport vesicles, most of
which migrate to the Golgi apparatus.
Functions of Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Synthesis of lipids and steroids.
 Role in cellular metabolism.
 Storage and metabolism of calcium.
 Catabolism and detoxification of toxic substances.
Golgi Apparatus
 The membrane composition is similar to that of the smooth ER and plasma
membrane.
 It is composed of 4 or more stacked layers of flat vesicular Structures.
 This apparatus is prominent in secretory cell, where its located on the side of the
cell from which the secretory substance are extruded.
 It receives transport vesicles from smooth ER.
 Substances formed in the ER are “processed” that is phosphorylated and
glycosylated.
 Substances are concentrated, sorted and packaged for secretion.
 Transported substance are then processed in Golgi apparatus to form
Lysosomes, Secretory vesicle and Cytoplasmic component.
Functions of Golgi Apparatus
 Processing, packaging, labeling and delivery of proteins and lipids.
Lysosomes
 Lysosome provide an intracellular digestive system that allows the
cell to digest damaged cellular structure, food particles that have been
ingested by cell, unwanted matter such as bacteria.
 It contains hydrolytic enzymes (acid hydrolases) such as
phosphatases, nucleases,
 Proteases, lipid-degrading enzymes and lysozymes digest bacteria
 Vesicular organelle formed from budding Golgi fuse with
pinocytotic or phagocytotic vesicles to form digestive vesicles
Types of Lysosomes
 Primary lysosome, which is pinched off from Golgi apparatus. It is inactive in
spite of having hydrolytic enzymes
 Secondary lysosome, which is the active lysosome. It is formed by the fusion
of a primary lysosome with phagosome or endosome.
Functions of Lysosomes
 Degradation of macromolecules.
 Degradation of worn-out organelles.
 Removal of excess of secretory products.
 Secretion of perforin, granzymes, melanin and serotonin.
Peroxisomes
 It is similar physically to lysosomes.
Two major differences:
 formed by self-replication
 They contain oxidases (hydrogen peroxide and catalase)
Functions of Peroxisomes
 Breakdown of excess fatty acids.
 Detoxification of hydrogen peroxide and other metabolic products.
 Oxygen utilization.
 Acceleration of gluconeogenesis.
 Degradation of purine to uric acid.
 Role in the formation of myelin.
 Role in the formation of bile acids.
CENTROSOME AND CENTRIOLES
 It is the membrane-bound cellular organelle situated almost in the center of cell,
close to nucleus.
 It consists of two cylindrical structures called centrioles which are made up of
proteins.
 They are responsible for the movement of chromosomes during cell division.

SECRETORY VESICLES
 Secretory vesicles contains secretory substances.
 They are formed in the endoplasmic reticulum, processed and packed in Golgi
apparatus.
 They are present throughout the cytoplasm.
 These vesicles are ruptured and secretory substances are released into the
cytoplasm when necessary.
 These vesicle store protein proenzyme (enzymes that are not yet
activated).
 They fuse with plasma membrane to release contents
 Constitutive secretion happens randomly
Stimulated secretion by the secretory vesicles requires trigger
MITOCHONDRIA (POWERHOUSE)
 It is a membrane bound cytoplasmic organelle concerned with production of
energy.
 It is a rod-shaped or oval-shaped structure with a diameter of 0.5 to 1 μ and it is
covered by a bilayered membrane.
 They are self-replicative, the outer membrane is smooth and encloses the
contents of mitochondrion.
 These membrane contains various enzymes such as acetyl-CoA synthetase and
glycerolphosphate acetyltransferase.
 The inner membrane is folded in the form of shelf-like inward projections
called cristae and it covers the inner matrix space.
 Cristae contain many enzymes and other protein molecules which are involved
in respiration and synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Structure of Mitochondrion
Functions of Mitochondrion
 Production of energy
 Synthesis of ATP
 Initiation of apoptosis

ORGANELLES WITHOUT LIMITING MEMBRANE

RIBOSOMES
 They are tiny granules and small dot-like structures with a diameter of 15nm.
 Present on the outer surface of the nuclear envelope and rough endoplasmic
reticulum.
 Ribosomes are made up of 35% of proteins and 65% of ribonucleic acid (RNA).
 RNA present in ribosomes is called ribosomal RNA (rRNA).
 Ribosomes are concerned with protein synthesis in the cell and make proteins for use
within the cell such as enzymes required for metabolism.
Types of Ribosomes
 Free ribosomes that are distributed in the cytoplasm.
 Ribosomes that are attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum.
Functions of Ribosomes
 Synthesis of proteins.
 Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries the genetic code for protein synthesis from
nucleus to the ribosomes.
 The amino acids is arrange by the ribosomes into small units of proteins.
 Ribosomes attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum are involved in the
synthesis of proteins such as the enzymatic proteins, hormonal proteins,
lysosomal proteins and the proteins of the cell membrane.
 Free ribosomes are responsible for the synthesis of proteins in hemoglobin,
peroxisome and mitochondria.
CYTOSKELETON
 Present throughout the cytoplasm.
 It determines the shape of the cell and gives support to the cell.
 It is a complex network of structures with varying sizes.
 It is also essential for the cellular movements and the response of the
cell to external stimuli.
Cytoskeleton consists of three major protein components:
 Microfilaments
 Microtubule
 Intermediate filaments
Microfilaments
 Smallest fibers
 Provides structural support
 Maintains characteristic shape of cell
 Permits contraction e.g. muscle cells
 It has a diameter of about 3 to 6 nm.
 It is also made up of non-tubular contractile proteins called actin and myosin.
Actin is more abundant than myosin.
Microtubules
 Determine the shape of the cell.
 Give structural strength to the cell.
 Act like conveyer belts which allow the movement of granules, vesicles, protein
molecules and some organelles like mitochondria to different parts of the cell.
Form the spindle fibers which separate the chromosomes during mitosis.
 Are responsible for the movement of centrioles and the complex
cellular structures like cilia.
 They are formed by bundles of globular protein called tubulin.
 Tubulin has two subunits, namely α-subunit and β-subunit.
Intermediate Filaments
 The structures that form a network around the nucleus and extend to the
periphery of the cell.
 Diameter of each filament is about 10 nm.
 They are formed by ropelike polymers, which are made up of fibrous
proteins.
 Helps to maintain the shape of the cell.
Subclasses of intermediate filaments
 Keratins (in epithelial cells)
 Glial filaments (in astrocytes)
 Neurofilaments (in nerve cells)
 Vimentin (in many types of cells)
 Desmin (in muscle fibers).

Microtubule Intermediate filament Microfilament

NUCLEUS
The most prominent and the largest cellular organelle.
It has a diameter of 10 μ to 22 μ and occupies about 10% of total volume of the
cell.
 Nucleus is present in all the cells in the body except the red blood cells.
 The nucleus is located in the center of the cell and mostly spherical in shape.
It is covered by a membrane called nuclear membrane.
STRUCTURE OF NUCLEUS
 Nucleoplasm
 Chromatin
 Nucleolus
Nuclear Membrane
 It is double layered, porous in nature and allows the nucleoplasm to
communicate with the cytoplasm.
 Outer layer of nuclear membrane is continuous with the membrane of
endoplasmic reticulum.
The space between the two layers of nuclear membrane is continuous with the
lumen of endoplasmic reticulum.
 Pores of the nuclear membrane are guarded (lined) by protein molecules with
a diameter of about 80 to 100 nm.
 Due to the attachment of protein molecules with the periphery of the pores it is
decreased to about 7 to 9 nm .
 Exchange of materials between nucleoplasm and cytoplasm occurs through
these pores.
Nucleoplasm
 It is a highly viscous fluid that forms the ground substance of the nucleus.
 It is similar to cytoplasm present outside the nucleus.
 It surrounds the chromatin and nucleolus.
 Contains dense fibrillar network of proteins called the nuclear matrix and
many substances such as nucleotides and enzymes.
 Nuclear matrix forms the structural framework for organizing chromatin.
 Soluble liquid part of nucleoplasm is known as nuclear hyaloplasm.
Chromatin
 Thread-like material made up of large molecules of DNA.
 DNA molecules are compactly packed with the help of a specialized
basic protein called histone.
 Chromatin is also known as DNA-histone complex.
 It forms the major bulk of nuclear material.
 DNA is a double helix which wraps around central core of eight
histone molecules to form the fundamental packing unit of chromatin
called nucleosome.
 Nucleosomes are packed together tightly with the help of a histone
molecule to form a chromatin fiber.
 The chromatin condenses to form chromosome before cell division.
Chromosomes
 Rod-shaped nuclear structure that carries a complete blueprint of all the hereditary
characteristics of that species.
 It is formed from a single DNA molecule coiled around histone molecules and each
DNA contains many genes.
 Chromosomes are not visible in the nucleus under microscope but during cell
division, they are visible under microscope.
 DNA becomes more tightly packed just before cell division, thereby making
chromosome visible during cell division.
 All the dividing cells of the body contain 23 pairs of chromosomes except
reproductive cells .
 Each pair consists of one chromosome inherited from mother and one from father.
 Cells with 23 pairs of chromosomes are called diploid cells.
 Reproductive cells called gametes or sex cells contain only 23 single chromosomes
and are called haploid cells.
Nucleolus
 It is a small, round granular structure of the nucleus.
 Each nucleus contains one or more per nucleoli or nucleus.
 The contains RNA and proteins.
 The RNA is synthesized by five different pairs of chromosomes and
stored in the nucleolus.
 It is condensed to form the granular “subunits” of ribosomes.
 Subunits formed in the nucleolus are transported to cytoplasm
through the pores of nuclear membrane.
 These subunits fuse to form ribosomes, which play an essential role
in the formation of proteins in the cytoplasm.
FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEUS
 Control of the cell division through genes.
 Storage of hereditary information (in genes) and transformation of
this information from one generation of the species to another.
 Formation of subunits of ribosomes.
 Sending genetic instruction to the cytoplasm for protein synthesis
through messenger RNA (mRNA).
 Control of all the cell activities that include metabolism, protein
synthesis, growth and reproduction (cell division).
 Synthesis of RNA.