PRINCIPLES OF SOLAR ENERGY

Prepared by:
M, UDAY KUMAR
Assistant Professor( c)
ME Department,
JNTUH UCEJ
 SOLAR ENERGY
• Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed using a range
of ever-evolving technologies(electro magnetic radiation).
• It is an important source of renewable energy and its technologies are broadly
characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on how they
capture and distribute solar energy or convert it into solar power.
• Energy used for cooling/heating/drying/distillation/power generation ,etc.,
• The Earth receives 174,000 terawatts (TW) of incoming solar
radiation (insolation) at the upper atmosphere.
• Most of the world's population live in areas with insolation levels of
150-300
watts/m², or 3.5-7.0 kWh/m² per day.
The energy radiated from the sun is electromagnetic
waves reaching the planet earth in three spectral
regions;
(i) Ultraviolet 6.4 % (ƛ ≤ 0.38 µm),
(ii) Visible 48.0 % (0.38 µm < ƛ < 0.78 µm), and
(iii) Infrared 45.6 % (ƛ ≥ 0.78 µm) of total energy.
Due to the large distance between the sun and the earth
(1.495 × 108 km) the beam radiation received from the
sun on the earth is almost parallel.
Direct Radiation: Solar radiation that reaches to the surface of earth
without being diffused is called direct beam radiation.

Diffused Radiation: As sunlight passes through the atmosphere, some of it

is absorbed, scattered and reflected by air molecules, water vapour, cloud,
dust, and pollutants from power plants, forest fires, and volcanoes. This is
called diffused radiation.

Global Solar Radiation: The sum of diffuse and direct solar radiation is
called global solar radiation.
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• The potential solar energy that could be used by humans differs from the
amount of solar energy present near the surface of the planet because factors
such as geography, time variation, cloud cover, and the land available to
humans limit the amount of solar energy that we can acquire.
• However, the use of photovoltaics that can follow the position of the sun can
significantly increase the solar energy potential in areas that are farther from
the equator.
• Solar hot water systems use sunlight to heat water.
 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF SOLAR
POWER
• Every type of energy utilization for electricity generation has
environmental consequences, including renewable energies.
• Such as follows:
• manufacture processes
• aesthetic impact
• use of large areas of land
• impact on the eco-system
 BY MANUFACTURE PROCESSES

• Due to the large size of the systems involved, manufacture, installation,

maintenance and ultimately disposition of all the system components are to
be optimised and subjected to an LCA(life cycle assessment) analysis[Cradle
to Grave].
• Should photovoltaic cells be considered, the hazardous materials contained in
them (arsenic and cadmium) can pose a serious problem in areas subject to
dust abrasion, such as deserts. Even silicon dust might pose a health problem.
ACTIONS REQUIRED:
1. Rigorous and quantitative LCA analysis.
2. Study of the rates of removal of hazardous materials from atmospheric
agents .
 BY AESTHETIC IMPACT

• The construction of overhead transmission lines and other facilities of

a HVDC grid (pylons and transmission towers) in scenic areas.

ACTIONS REQUIRED:
1.Contingent analysis to identify the locations suitable for the
construction of wind turbine towers.
2.Consider tunneling and micro tunneling, using the technology
borrowed from oil field exploration
 BY USE OF LAND

• While wind power does not pose any significant problem, solar energy does,
unless on worthless soil (deserts).

• The use of energy crops sent prices soaring and created the 3F-conflict (Food
- Feed - Fuel).
ACTIONS REQUIRED:
1. Use wastes, refuses and lingo-cellulosic products or energy crops harvested in
off-years
2. Optimise the production of electricity, fuels and chemicals in integrated
biorefineries
 BY IMPACT OF ECO-SYSTEMS

• The major impact reported for solar is bird deaths from electrocution or
collisions with spinning rotors.
• Large extensions of concentrating solar systems might disturb migratory birds.
• ACTIONS REQUIRED:
1. Identify areas which are not included in migratory paths
 PHYSICS OF THE SUN

• The phenomena of the sun is determined by solar magnetic field it was done by
the astronomical methods.
• It intersects with many disciplines of pure physics, astrophysics, and computer
science, including fluid dynamics, plasma physics including magneto-
hydrodynamics(MHD), seismology, particle physics, atomic physics, nuclear
physics, stellar evolution, space physics, spectroscopy, radiative transfer, applied
optics, signal processing, computer vision, computational physics, stellar
physics and solar astronomy.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SUN
PLANETS OF EARTH
DISTANCE OF PLANETS FROM EARTH INMILES
 SOLAR CONSTANT

The rate at which energy reaches the earth's surface from the sun, usually taken to
be 1,388 watts per square metre.
• The formula for calculating the solar constant is written as
• So = E(Sun) x (R(Sun) / r)2,
• So-solar constant,
• E- irradiance of the sun
• R-Radius of the sun
• r-distance between the Earth and the sun
ASTRONOMICAL UNIT-A unit of length used for distances within the solar system; equal to
the mean distance between the Earth and the Sun (approximately 93 million miles or 150
million kilometers)
 EXTRA TERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION

• solar radiation incident outside the earth's atmosphere is called extraterrestrial

radiation. On average the extraterrestrial irradiance is 1367 Watts/meter2
(W/m2).
 TERRESTRIAL SOLAR RADIATION

• Terrestrial radiation is the energy released by the Earth itself as

opposed to solar radiation that it receives from the Sun.
• Apart from the energy generated by the decay of radioactive minerals
in rock, the energy that drives terrestrial radiation ultimately comes
from the Sun, and it is a major factor in the study of global warming
 SOLAR RADIATION ON TITLED SURFACE

IRRADIANCE VARIABLES:
1. Latitude at the point of observation

2. Orientation of the surface in relation to the

sun
3. Day of the year
4. Hour of the day
5. Atmospheric conditions
SOLAR RADIANCE ON A TILTED SURFACE

Gb,n
Gb,t
Gb,n

Gb

= Ratio of Beam Irradiance

Rb,t
normal to the earth’s
Rb,t  Gb,t  Gb,n cos  cos surface to Beam
b z Irradiance normal to
G Gb,n cosz normal to a tilted
cos surface
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 Nature of the solar resource
Solar geometry: Collector angles

Sun angles  = Angle

of
cos   cos  s sin  sin  sin  s incidence
s = Solar
 cos  s cos  sin  cos  attitude
angle
s

 sin  s cos   = Surface

azimuth
angle
Earth angles
s = Solar
cos   sin  sin  cos   cos  sin  cos   azimuth
angle
 cos  cos  cos  cos   sin  sin   = Collector
slope
cos    = Declination

 cos  sin  sin  sin   = Latitude

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 = Hour angle
 INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING SOLAR RADIATION

• The global solar radiation has two

components namely direct and diffuse
radiation.
• The global radiation is measured
with the pyranometers, and the direct
radiation with pyrheliometer.
• The devices use two types of sensors:
thermal and photovoltaic.

26
 PYRANOMETER
• A pyranometer shaded from direct solar radiation can be used to measure
diffuse radiation. One implementation uses a band stretching from the eastern
to the western horizon that is oriented according to the solar declination to
shade the pyranometer with the plane of the band parallel to the celestial
equator. Since the solar declination changes, this band must be adjusted with
a frequency that depends on accuracy requirements and time of year.
Working of pyranometer 
pyranometer operates by the
thermoelectric detection principle,
which is when a horizontal blackened
surface fully absorbs the incoming
energy over a wide range of
wavelengths. As a result, the
temperature of the surface is increased,
which is measured by using
thermocouple.
Thermocouple works on the principle
of seebeck effect.  
When the thermocople recives solar
energy as input interms of heat e.m.f
will be generated.
 PYRHELIOMETER

It measure the direct component of solar irradiance which is important when installing concentrating
collectors.
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF PYRHELIOMETER
The advantages and disadvantages of the two types pyranometers

The pyranometer with solar cell sensor The pyranometer with thermal sensor

 The time of the response is very good  nearly constant spectral response on
10 μs the whole solar spectral range;
advantages  cheap;  highly used.
 stability;
 ruggedness;
 tolerance to soiling.

 the limited spectral response; The response time is a disadvantage,

 the nonuniform spectral response; in the order of seconds;
disadvantage the temperature influence upon the  Introduces significant errors for
s response. instantaneous measurements (clear-
cloudy);
 are expensive.

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SUN SHINE (SUN SET)
SUN SHINE RECORDERS
SUN SHINE METHOD
•Calibrated pyrheliometer and solar
tracker
•Clear sky periods
•Alternate shade and unshade of
pyranometer
Advantages
•Can automated
•Provides unbiased estimate of cosine
response
•No zero irradiance bias
Disadvantages
•Which value of K?
•Transitions of bright
sun to sky
 SUN SHINE

• The duration and the intensity of

sunlight is measured using a
Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder.
•
• These focus light from the sun onto
a piece of card where it leaves a
burnt trace. The more sunshine
there is, the longer the line.
 SOLAR RADIATION DATA
• Solar radiation is the electromagnetic energy emitted by the sun, can be captured
and converted into useful forms of energy.(nasa)[National Solar Radiation
Database]
 SOLAR ENERGY COLLECTION

• A solar thermal collector collects heat by absorbing sunlight.

• It is possible to harness the energy from the sun and convert it into either
electricity or heat using PV (photo-voltaic) or ST (solar thermal)
technologies respectively.
• An evacuated solar system is the most efficient and a common means of
solar thermal energy generation with a rate of efficiency of 70 per cent.
• Solar Thermal Energy Collector: Solar thermal energy collector is an
equipment in which solar energy is collected by absorbing the radiation in an
absorber and then transferring to a fluid. There are two type of collectors
 TYPES OF SOLAR COLLECTORS
• Back-pass solar collectors
• Used to heat air
• Glazed surface
Concentrating solar collectors
• Best suited for clear skies
• Steam production
• Concentrates light at absorber which can increase efficiency at high temperature
• Four forms: parabolic trough, parabolic dish, power tower, stationary solar collectors
• Trombe Wall
• Thermal mass designed to radiate heat during the night
• Glass to allow sunlight through
• With added salt fillers stored energy changes from 200 cal/day to 80,000 cal/day
• Batch Solar Collectors
• Water heating
• Glazed water collectors
 FLAT PLATE COLLECTORS
• It has no optical concentrator. Here the collector area and the absorber area are
numerically same. The efficiency of flat plate collector is low and temperature
of working fluid can be raised only up to 100 0C.
The flat plate collector consists of five
major parts as given below:
1: A metallic flat absorber plate: It is
made of copper, steel or aluminium
(having high thermal conductivity)
and having black surface. The
thickness of the metal sheet ranges
from 0.5 to 1.0 mm.
2: Tubes or channels: they are soldered
to the absorber plate. Water flowing
through these tubes takes away the heat
from the absorber plate. The diameter
of tubes is around 1.25 cm, while that
of the header pipe which leads water
in and out of the collector and
distributes it to absorber tubes is 2.5
cm.
3: A transparent toughened glass sheet: of
5 mm thickness is provided as the cover
plate. It reduces convection heat losses
through a stagnant air layer between the
absorber plate and the glass. Radiation
loss are also reduced as the spectral
transmissivity of glass is such that it
transparent to short wave radiation and
nearly opaque to long wave thermal
radiation emitted by interior collector
walls and absorbing plate.
4: Fibre glass insulation: of 2.5 to 8.0
cm thickness is provided at the
bottom and on the sides in order to
minimizethe heat loss.
5: A container encloses the whole
assembly in a box made of
metallic sheet or fibre glass.
The commercially available
collector have a face area of 2 m2.
The whole assembly is fixed on a
supporting structure that is
installed on a tilted position at a
suitable angle facing south in
northern hemisphere. For the
whole year, the optimum tilt angle
of collector is equal to the latitude
of its location. During winter the
tilt angle is kept 10-150 more than
the latitude of the location, while
in summer it should be 10-150 less
than the latitude.
 CONCENTRATING TYPE SOLAR COLLECTOR

Here, the receiving area of solar radiation is several times greater than
the absorber area and the efficiency is high. Mirrors and lenses are used
to concentrate sun rays on the absorber. The temperature of working
fluid can be raised only up to 500 0C.
For better performance, the collector is mounted on a tracking
equipment to always face the sun with its changing position
Types of concentrating collectors
• Parabolic trough system
• Parabolic dish
• Power tower
• Stationary concentrating collectors
 PARABOLIC TROUGH SYSTEM

Parabolic troughs are devices that are shaped like the letter
“u”. The troughs concentrate sunlight onto a receiver tube that
is positioned along the focal line of the trough. Sometimes a
transparent glass tube envelops the receiver tube to reduce heat
loss [3].
Their shapes are like letter “u” as The parabolic trough sytem is shown in
shown figure 3.1.1 below. the figure 3.1.2 below.

Figure 3.1.1 Crossection of parabolic trough [4]. Figure 3.1.2 Parabolic trough system [3].
 PARABOLIC DISH SYSTEMS
A parabolic dish collector is similar in
appearance to a large satellite dish, but has
mirror-like reflectors and an absorber at the focal
point. It uses a dual axis sun tracker .
The below figure 3.2.1 shows The Parabolic dish collector is shown
crossection of parabolic dish. in the below figure 3.2.2.

Figure 3.2.2 Parabolic dish collector with a mirror-like

Figure 3.2.1 Crossection of parabolic dish [4]. reflectors and an absorber at the focal point [Courtesy of
SunLabs - Department of Energy] [3].
 POWER TOWER SYSTEM
A heliostat uses a field of dual axis sun trackers that
direct solar energy to a large absorber located on a
tower. To date the only application for the heliostat
collector is power generation in a system called the
power tower .
The Power tower system is shown Heliostats are shown in the
in the figure 3.3.1 below. figure 3.3.2 below.

Figure 3.3.1 Power tower system [4]. Figure 3.3.2 Heliostats [4].
STATIONARY CONCENTRATING SOLAR COLLECTORS

 Stationary concentrating collectors use compound parabolic reflectors and

flat reflectors for directing solar energy to an accompanying absorber or
aperture through a wide acceptance angle. The wide acceptance angle for
these reflectors eliminates the need for a sun tracker.
 This class of collector includes parabolic trough flat plate collectors, flat
plate collectors with parabolic boosting reflectors, and solar cooker.
Development of the first two collectors has been done in Sweden. Solar
cookers are used throughout the world, especially in the developing
countries .
 Solar Energy Storage

1.Thermal energy storage

a. Sensible and latent heat storage
b. Water storage
c. Pebble bed storage
2.Electrical storage
Battery storage
3.Mechanical energy storage
d. Pumped hydro- electric storage
e. Compressed air
f. Fly wheel
 Sensible and latent heat storage
In heat storage,is made of the thermal capacity of solid or liquid materials,
either by their sensible (specific) heat effect (heating/cooling cycles) or by
their latent heat effect at a phase change (melting/freezing cycles). For heat
storage, the important thermal characteristics are:
Heat capacity. MJ/m3
Charge and discharge rates,  CP (Ti − T0), kW/m3
Heat loss rate , kW/m3
Thermal stratification, ΔT
 Battery Storage System

Batteries are devices that convert chemical energy to electric energy and

basically all consist of two electrodes, a cathode and an anode made
of conductive materials which are separated from each other by a separator.
Between the cathode and the anode is the electrolyte which is a chemical
substance containing ions and these react with the conductive materials of the
cathode and anode, thus creating an electric current.
.
 Mechanical energy storage
Pumped hydro energy storage (PHES) is currently the major storage
technology making up over 99% of the total storage capacity worldwide –
equaling to around 140 Gigawatts (GW). The largest PHES systems are
installed in the USA, China and Japan.
PHES systems use excess capacity of generated electricity to drive pumping
systems that pump water from a reservoir at lower elevation (lower reservoir)
up to another basin at higher elevation (upper reservoir).
Once demand for electricity surges, gates will open so that the water from the
upper reservoir can flow through those gates and channels back to the lower
reservoir. The channels are equipped with turbines which – driven by the water
flow – will generate electricity. Physically, PHES systems use the height
difference between two reservoirs and are therefore also called gravitational
energy storage systems.
Pumped hydro energy storage
 Compressed Air Energy Storage
Compressed air energy storage (CAES) systems store cost-efficient off-peak
electricity via a compressor in the form of compressed air. The compressed air
is pumped into a reservoir, in most cases kilometer-deep underground
reservoirs, caverns or  depleted wells.
Once needed during electricity peak demand times, the compressed air is
released and flows through an expansion pressure turbine that is attached to a
generator and then fed as electricity to the grid.
The expanded air must be heated in order to drive the turbines and thus generate
electricity. 
 Flywheel Energy Storage (FES)

Flywheel energy storage (FES) systems are in principle devices whose core is a

rotor, also called: flywheel. The flywheel is accelerated to a high speed level and
energy is stored and maintained as rotational energy. The addition or extraction
of energy increases or reduces the speed of the flywheel.
On a global scale, over 25MW of FES systems as grid-connected electricity
storage had been installed by 2014.
 Applications of solar energy
Solar energy is a highly beneficial and practical source that is typically used in
taking advantage of its two main forms: heat and light. We use solar energy to
charge vehicles, to generate power with photovoltaic (PV) cells and to heat
water.
Generation Of Solar Power (Electricity)
The reduction in the prices of solar panels and their improved durability has
driven more people to select them as alternatives for powering their homes and
industries.
Solar energy generates electricity through photovoltaic cells – which convert
direct sunlight to electricity. The energy generated by the solar power system can
be used to offset or even to completely replace the user’s monthly bills.
Excess power can be sent to the grid for other consumers within the locality to
consume.
Water Heating
Solar energy is commonly used to heat water in our homes, industries, hotels and
even hospitals.
Home owners use rooftop photovoltaic cells (PV) to absorb heat from the sun and
heat the water in an insulated water tank, which stores the hot water for a
considerable time for use in our homes.
Solar systems can also heat swimming pools by circulating water through a solar
collector and warmed by the sunlight, before using it again in swimming pools.
Drying of Agricultural and Animal Products
Solar energy can also be used to dry agricultural and animal products such as
fruits, milk, fish, potato chips, and maize grains.
Products are placed in a cabinet dryer comprising a box with a foundation
insulated at the bottom, an interior side painted black and covered with an
inclined transparent sheet.
Solar Heating
You can use solar energy for space heating of homes and businesses. Devices
like Flat plate collectors convert solar radiation into heat (thermal energy).
The Flat plate collectors consist of a blackened metal plate with a top transparent
sheet of glass cover and a thermal insulation layer underneath it that is heated by
the sunlight.
The metal collector absorbs heat from the sun and transfers it to the water or air
as a carrier fluid that flows through the plate to the insulated water tank that
stores hot or warm water.
This heating water system can also supply your home with hot or warm water
flowing through the ceilings or floors tubes.
When the building needs heat, the hot water or air can be transferred by
conventional equipment like fans, air outlets, and ducts from these collectors or
devices to the building interior spaces.
Solar Energy Lighting
Solar energy is a suitable solution for security lights, street lights, indoor lights,
and road signs as they are affordable, environmentally friendly and readily
available.
You can use solar energy to light your home or business as it is a great option
to save on electricity, energy and costs and do not dissipate or lose power as do
other energy systems.
Solar Pumping Water For Irrigation
The solar energy generated by a solar panel system can be used to pump water to
use for irrigation during the summer.
During hot seasons, crops lose more water through the transpiration process, but
at the same time, solar panels generate more solar energy because they get a high
exposure to sunlight. This makes solar energy solutions great to use for irrigation
purposes because it is readily available and cheap.
Solar Energy Water Distillation
Solar energy can greatly help distill water, especially in arid, semi-arid, or
coastal areas with saline water and plenty of sunlight. Sunlight in these areas can
be used to convert saline water into pure water for consumption.
Solar heat is transferred through transparent glass to a shallow blackened basin
containing saline water. The heat radiation gets absorbed and is converted into
heat in the blackened bay.
The heat evaporates from saline, as pure water from the saline, in the form of
vapour, condenses into pure water, and is collected in basins and shifted to water
tank storage.
Thank You