TUNNELS AND UNDERGROUND

EXCAVATIONS
 TUNNELS & UNDERGROUND
EXCAVATIONS
► Tunnels – Horizontal / Near Horizontal
underground excavations - open to atmosphere at
both ends - one dimension fairly large than other
two
► Shafts – Vertical/ Near Vertical excavations – open
to atmosphere at one end
► Adit - Horizontal / Near Horizontal underground
excavations - open to atmosphere at one end
► Incline – Inclined underground excavation - open
to atmosphere at one end
Schematic Diagram Showing Different Structures
Associated With Underground Excavation

Ground Surface
Adit

Tunnel
Drift

Incline Shaft

Underground structure
 CLASSIFICATION
OF TUNNELS

SIZE SHAPE USAGE

 A. SIZE

► Tunnel size – reflected by its span/ width/

diameter
► On the basis of size - tunnels broadly classified
into 3 groups -
Diameter/ Width/ Span of Tunnel Size
> 9m BIG
6 – 9m MEDIUM
< 6m SMALL
 B. SHAPE

1. CIRCULAR

2. HORSE SHOE

4. RECTANGULAR 3. D-SHAPED
C. USAGE

1. WATER CONDUCTORS

2. TRANSPORT TUNNELS

3. STORAGE TUNNELS

4. TUNNELS FOR MINING PURPOSE

5. TUNNELS FOR LIVING &

ENTERTAINMENT PURPOSE
 Classification of tunnels based on utility

Water Conductors Transport Storage Living Spaces Mining usage

1. Adit
1. Hydro-electric 1. Road 1. Nuclear waste 1. Entertainment 2. Drive
2. Diversion 2. Railway 2. Nuclear materials 2. Habitation\ 3. Cross
3. Irrigation 3. Metro 3. Petroleum products cut
4. Spillway 4. Transport 4. Arms, Ammunitions
5. HRT 5. Food grains
6. TRT 6. Water storage
 CASE SPECIFIC PREFERENCES
► Circular & Horse-shoe shaped – Water
conductors
► D-shaped – Transportation purpose
► Rectangular – Exploratory purpose (drifts &
adits)

 Tunnel Dia > 9 m – Horse-shoe shaped preferred

 Tunnel Dia 5m-8m – Circular shape

Size of D-shaped tunnels – dependent on vehicle

size – usually 6m for transportation purpose, but
never less than 3m
 Factors considered for Tunneling
► Tunneling comparatively easier in
massive igneous and metamorphic
rocks – properly lithified sedimentary
rocks also serve purpose
► Major thrust & active fault planes –
must be avoided
► Tunnels in poor rock condition &
debris zone – should be supported to
avoid collapse
 Factors considered – contd

►During tunneling – ensure 3D rock

cover above crown (to avoid roof
collapse) & 2D rock cover at side
walls (to avoid wall collapse)
►when minimum rock cover not
available – tunnel to be excavated
cautiously & supported adequately
after blasting
(D=Tunnel Dia./ Width/ Span of tunnel)
 Parts of a Tunnel
► Roof – Usually curved, upper part of tunnel
► Crown – Highest point on roof
► Floor – Usually flat, bottom portion of tunnel
► Height – Distance between crown & floor
Direction of Advance – Direction along which a
tunnel is excavated
► Tunnel Wall – Usually vertical - facing
towards direction of advance the wall on right
hand side – right wall & the wall opposite to it -
left wall
► Span/ Width – Distance between tunnel walls
 Parts of a Tunnel……..contd.

 Spring line – Intersection of Roof with Tunnel Wall

Left Spring Line – Left wall & Roof
Right Spring Line – Right Wall & Roof
 Overt – Portion of tunnel above imaginary line joining

left and right spring lines

 Invert – Portion of tunnel below imaginary line joining

left and right spring lines

 Left Invert – Intersection of left wall & floor

 Right Invert – Intersection of right wall & floor

 Tunnel axis – Line joining successive crown points –

usually parallel to spring lines & invert lines

Associated terminology – Tunnel portals & tunnel face
 Different Parts of a D-shape Tunnel
Crown Tunnel Axis n ce
a
A dv
n of
o
ecti
Dir
Left Spring OVER
T

Roof
Left Wall
Right Spring
INVE
R T
Height Right Wall
Left Invert Floor

Span/ Width
Right Invert
 Terminologies related to tunneling
conditions
Ground conditions:

Soft rock Hard rock

Running Ground Squeezing Groung

Flowing Ground Swelling Ground
Squeezing Ground Blow Out
Swelling Ground Firm Ground

Massive rock
Stratified rock
Jointed rock
Blocky rock
Seamy rock
Sheared rock
►Soft Ground terminology
 Running Ground

►When tunneling done in loose

soil, particularly silt to coarse
sand, they may slide and flow
even if dry as cohesion less soil
 Flowing Ground

 Cohesion less soil, when wet

with water, flow is as viscous
liquid, on excavation
 Squeezing Ground
► Deformation without visible fracture – plastic
deformation
Factors responsible for squeezing
Ground

► Ground material responsible for squeezing - more cohesive,

& become plastic in the presence of water
► Presence of high tectonic stresses in the area
► Presence of water enhances squeezing conditions
► Material volume remain unaffected by contact of water
► Squeezing is more effective, when the overlaying bed is
massive rock, whose weight plays important role in
squeezing of tunnel rocks
 Swelling Ground

Rock material swell or increase in

volume in the presence of water due to
presence of swelling clay minerals -
Ground move into tunnel because of
increase in volume & moisture content
– upheaval of floor –commonly
observed
Hard Rock Terminology

Squeezing Ground & Swelling

Ground – common
 Blow out condition
► occursin areas of high tectonic stresses,
when it exceeds peak strength of rock
masses

► Maylead to rock burst condition on

tunnel excavation.

► Tunnelexcavation coupled with rock burst

may lead to heavy over break in tunnels
 Firm Ground
► Massive Rock: - having less geological discontinuity,
hard like granites and other massive igneous rocks
► Stratified Rock: - alternating lithology - periodic change
of rock type e.g.. Alternating beds of Sandstone,
claystone and siltstone of Siwalik rocks
► Jointed Rock: - rocks traversed by many sets of joints –
minimum 3 sets - common in high tectonic areas
► Blocky Rock: - widely spaced continuous joints - joints
generally at right angle - resulting into big blocky rocks,
► Seamy Rock: - Sedimentary rocks sandstones alternating
with thin clay bands –clay bands become highly plastic
(seams), repeated at close intervals
► Sheared Rock: - rocks with intermittent sheared zones
having pulverized, augury materials
 Impact of geology & topography on tunnel
stability
Attribute of geological discontinuities: -
Tunnel alignment – Important consideration
1, If the strike of major geological discontinuity is
perpendicular to tunnel alignment – favorable - less
exposures of discontinuity on tunnel alignment
2, If strike of major geological discontinuity parallel to
tunnel alignment – unfavorable – longer exposure along
tunnel alignment
3, Geological discontinuities like shear zones, faults, weak
fractures – prevent uniform redistribution of stresses –
stress concentration – over break and instability of
tunnels
 Condition - A

Fig:

• Horizontal beds – generally stable

•Minor unstable condition, if shear zones are present
 Condition - B

Fig:

• Dipping beds if strike of discontinuity perpendicular to

tunnel alignment
• The shear zones exposed for short distance along tunnel
alignment
• favorable
 Condition - C

Fig:

•Verticalbeds with strike of discontinuity perpendicular

to tunnel alignment
• Shear zones get exposed for very short distance
•Very favorable
 Condition - D

Fig:

•Verticalbeds with strike of discontinuity parallel to tunnel

alignment
• shear zones got exposed for very long distances along tunnel
alignment
• Heavy over break due to concentration of stresses
• Unfavorable
 Condition - E

•Anticlinalbeds – tunnel through core hydrostatic

stresses tend to get dissipated on either side
• Due to tension cracks, minor to major over break
condition occurs
•Favorable as compared to syncline
 Condition - F

• Synclinal beds – tunnel through core - water from both

sides - hydrostatic stresses tend to get concentrated
• heavy over break condition
• very unfavorable
 Condition - G

• Tunnel passing perpendicular to the strike of fault

• Fault zone problem restricted to narrow reach of tunnel alignment
•Favorable
 Condition - H

• Tunnel trending parallel to the strike of fault

• Most unfavorable as heavy overbreak
 Condition - I

• Road tunnel- horizontal beds

• Stable slope and tunneling condition good
 Condition - J

•Dipping beds: dipping towards valley at low angle then valley

slope
•unstable slope condition
•Tunnel parallel to strike – unfavorable
• Overall unfavorable
 Condition - K

• Vertical Beds: - beds at steeper angle than slope

• Stable slope
• Concentration of stresses in roof as tunnel axis parallel
to strike of bed
• Minor to major over break condition in tunnel
• Overall moderately favorable condition
 Condition - L

• Dipping beds – dipping oblique into hills

• Stable slope
• Axis of tunnel parallel to strike of beds
• Minor over breaks
• Overall moderately favorable
THANK YOU