Chapter 6

Geology and Construction

6.1 Geological materials for construction

• The term 'construction minerals' is used to describe all
minerals, soils and rocks used by the construction industry,
for example those use in road construction, house
construction, dam construction, railway construction and
other engineering structures.
• During any engineering structure construction, to have the
stable and economic engineering structure, it is essential to
identify suitable sources of construction material by
considering different suitability factors.
Factors those determine the suitability condition of the Source
of geological Construction materials:

• Volume of material
• Geological structures which control the workability and block
size of the quarry material
• Overburden material which affect the economy of the project
• Transportation cost (distance of the source site)
• Weathering degree of the rock
• Engineering properties of the material
• slope angle (topography) of the site
• population density of the site
• land use/ land covers of the site
• Accessibility of the site
• workability of the material and others.
 Dimension Stone

• It is the principal load-bearing material of buildings, bridges

and others, now its function largely taken over by concrete,
brick and steel
• These rock must be quarried in sizeable rectangular blocks
free from internal fractures, cannot yield an excessive
proportion of waste fragments, has widely spaced bedding
and joints, has High compressive, shear strengths, hardness
and durability for load-bearing
• The common examples of building stones are granite,
massive sandstone, limestone and other igneous rocks
Roofing rock Materials:
• Rocks used for roofing purposes must possess a sufficient degree
of fissility to split into thin slabs
• It also must be a durable and impermeable material
• Slate is one of the best roofing materials and has been used
extensively and also used for paving when the cleavage is not so
fine
Facing Materials:
• Facing and Flooring Rock construction materials are used for the
decorative of building walls and floors.
• These rocks must have :
- High tensile strength in order to resist cracking
-Good appearance which controlled by mineralogical composition
and grain size of the rock
• E.G A wider variety of porphyritic igneous rocks, marbles,
Serpentine, tuffs, fossiliferous limes and others are used as
facing and paving (flooring) materials
 Armourstone
• Armourstone refers to large blocks of rock that are used to
protect civil engineering structures
E.g.
̶ Rip-rap are used to protect the upstream face of dams
from the wave action of water
̶ it also serve as scour prevention from bridge piers
̶ it is used in coastal engineering for protection of sea
walls by breaking sea waters wave
• To have good quality Armourstone material: the size,
grading, shape, density, water absorption, abrasion
resistance, impact resistance, strength and durability of the
rock material used for armourstone must be considered
during the design stage of a particular project
 Aggregate construction material
• It is the granular or particulate material that we have use in different
engineering structures as it is or by mixing with other material such
as cement, bitumen and others
• The two principal types of aggregate are crushed rock aggregate
and natural gravel aggregate
• Most of the time the properties of an aggregate are related to the
texture and mineralogical composition of the rock from which it was
derived.
• E.G.
 The higher the porosity and the larger the grain size, the
lower the crushing strength.
 The coarse-grained igneous rocks are not as suitable as the
fine-grained, as they crush more easily.
 On the other hand, the very-fine-grained and glassy
volcanics are unsuitable since they produce chips with sharp
edges when crushed, and they tend to develop a high
polishing value
crushed rock aggregate and

natural gravel aggregate

 Crushed Rock for Concrete Aggregate
• Concrete is formed from the mixtures of rock aggregate,
sand, cement and water and used in different engineering
structures
• Approximately 75% of the volume of concrete consists of
aggregate, therefore its properties have a significant influence
on the engineering behavior of concrete
• The main factors those control suitability condition of the
concrete aggregate are: Aggregate Shape, alkali reaction
capacity and shrinkage capacity of an aggregate
 1. Aggregate Shape
• The shape of aggregate particles that governed mainly by the
fracture pattern of the rock can control the suitability
condition of the concrete aggregate
• The angular shaped aggregate particles has high interlocking
capacity than the tabular- or planar-shaped aggregate
particles
• Most of the time the shape of the aggregate can be depend on
the rock type
• E.g. Rocks such as basalts, dolerites, andesite, granites,
quartzite and limestone tend to produce angular
fragments when crushed, while foliated and laminated
rocks have a tendency to form a tabular or planar-
shaped aggregate particles.
 2. Alkali reaction capacity of an Aggregate
• The siliceous aggregate material those contain opal, chalcedony,
flint, chert, greywacke and volcanic glass can undergo the
chemical reaction when it used with the alkali cement those has
high content of Na2O and K2O. E.g Portland cement
• Due to this alkali chemical reaction the concrete is expanded
and crack, thereby it looses its strength
• When concrete is wet, the alkalies that are released are
dissolved by water and form the caustic solution that attacks
reactive aggregates and produce alkali–silica gels
• These gels can absorb more water and develop the pressure that
causes rupturing of the cement around reacting aggregate
particles
• Therefore to avoided these problems a preliminary petrological
examination of the aggregate must be conducted
• Based on the petrological examination the material that
contains > 0.25% opal, > 5% chalcedony or > 3% glass by
weight must be rejected for the concrete aggregate. Otherwise
it must be used as the concrete aggregate with low-alkali
cement which contains less than 0.6% of Na2O and K2O
• The reactivity of an aggregate is not depend only on the
composition but also to the percentage of strained quartz that
a rock contains
• For instance the rock aggregates containing 40% or more of
strongly adulatory or highly granulated quartz were highly
reactive, whereas those with between 30 and 35% were
moderately reactive
• The basaltic rocks with 5% or more secondary chalcedony or
opal, or about 15% aragonite, Sandstones containing 5% or
more chert and Certain argillaceous dolostones can show
deleterious reactions with high-alkali cements
 3. Shrinkage capacity of an aggregate
• It is the large wetting and drying volume fluctuation of rock
aggregate that can affect the total shrinkage of concrete
• This properties of rock aggregate is depend on the percentage of
clay material.
• Consequently, the proportion of clay material in a fine aggregate
should not exceed 3%.
• The aggregates from basalt, gabbro, dolerite, mudstone and
greywacke have high shrinkage capacity while the aggregates from
Granite, limestone, quartzite and felsites are not affected by
shrinkage
• In general it assumed that shrinkage of the aggregate in concrete
should not exceed 0.045%.
 Road Aggregate
• Aggregates are a basic material in both flexible pavement and
rigid pavement road construction.
• In general it has three primary uses in highway
construction:
1. It can Use as compacted aggregates in bases, subbase and
shoulders
2. It can use as ingredients in hot mix asphalt which can serve
as surfacing layer for flexible pavement road.
3. It can use as ingredients in Portland cement concrete for the
construction of rigid-pavement slabs, bridges, concrete
barriers, sidewalks, curbs, Retaining walls, and other
structures.
• Some times it can also used as special backfill material, riprap
and for other less significant purposes.
• Most igneous and contact metamorphic rocks are suitable for
road aggregate, but not regional metamorphic rocks.
 1. Road aggregates for base course
• It is the road layer from Compacted aggregates without the addition of a
cementing material or bitumen
• In the rigid pavements the importance of base course is to improve the
drainage and to cover a material that is highly susceptible to frost.
• Here gradation and soundness are the primary considerations in selecting or
evaluating aggregates
• In the flexible pavement it use to carry and transmit the applied loads.
• Gradation and strength of the aggregate must be evaluated
• If all the particles of an aggregate are of uniform size, the compacted mass
will contain more voids whereas aggregate comprising particles of various
sizes will give a mass with lesser voids.
• The particle size distribution of a mass of aggregate should be such that the
smaller particles fill the voids between the larger particles.
• The proper grading of an aggregate produces dense concrete and needs less
quantity of fine aggregate and cement waste.
• Therefore, it is essential that coarse and fine aggregates be well graded to
produce quality concrete.
 2. Road aggregates for subbase
• It is also the road layer from Compacted aggregates without
the addition of a cementing material or bitumen
• Most of the time the natural gravel can be used in this layer
• The shape and surface texture of the natural gravel can be
influenced by transportation agents, initial shape of the
fragment, and transportation distance
• Based on their shape gravel particles can be classified as
rounded, irregular, angular, flaky and elongated
 3. Road aggregate for asphalt layer
• Most of the time it prepared from crushed rocks
• It must has high resistance to abrasion, low porosity, high binding
capacity with bitumen, non coating surface, high polishing
resistance, non flaky material, high weathering resistance, high
crushing value and etc.
• Acid igneous rocks do not mix well with bitumen as they have
poor ability to absorb it while basic igneous rocks such as basalt
and dolerite possess a high affinity for bitumen, as does limestone.
• The suitable rocks for asphalt aggregate can be massive and has
fine-medium grain size texture
• E.g. basalt, dolerite, fine granite, greywacke, quartzite, hornfels,
flint etc.
 4. Railroad aggregate
• To withstand the high speed and high load of train the railroad
must has high engineering quality
a. ballast aggregate
• It is one of the railway substructure layer that constructed from
the course aggregate and laid between the sleeper and sub-
ballast
• Ballast aggregate perform the following functions:
– Retain the sleeper in position by withstanding the vertical,
lateral and longitudinal forces
– Provide elasticity and dynamic resistance to the track
superstructure
– Distributing the stress from the sleeper over the large area of
the underling layers
– Preventing vegetation growth in the track
– Provide free drainage and others
 To perform its function well, the ballast aggregate must be:
• Tough enough to resist breakdown and fracturing under
the load
• Hard enough to resist abrasion and wear
• Dense enough and have sufficient mass to resist lateral
forces and anchor the ties in the place
• Free of secondary minerals such as pyrite which can cause
corrosive effect on the metallic parts of the track
• Has high resistance to the chemical and physical
degradation
• Non flake material to has good interlocking capacity
 b. Sub ballast aggregate
• It is one of the track substructure that placed in between
ballast and sub-grade and perform the following functions:
• Reducing the stress level from ballast to sub-grade
• Preventing the interpenetration of ballast material into the
sub-grade
• Preventing the emigration of fine sub-grade material into
ballast layer
• Most of the time like the Highway base course and sub-base
layers, sub-ballast can be constructed from crushed stone or
Natural gravels
 Sand material
• It is the fine grain construction material that use in different
engineering structures such as concrete work, mortars, plasters
and renderings and others
• To produce a good-quality concrete the sand gradation can
play big role
• Poorly graded sands can be improved by adding the
missing grade sizes to them (blending)
• The sand used in concrete work must contain less than 3% silt
or clay by weight, since they need a high water during
concrete mix and leads to shrinkage and cracking in concrete
on drying
• If sand particles are coated with clay, they form a poor bond
with cement and produce a weaker and less durable
concrete.
• The presence of feldspars, mica, particles of shale and
Organic impurities in sand can affect the strength, salt
content, iron pyrite and durability of the concrete
• The sand that have more than 95% silica content and less
than 0.05 iron oxides can be use in glass industry
 Natural Gravel and sand deposition
• Colluvium deposition
• Alluvial deposition
• Marine deposition
• Glacial deposition and others
 Construction material for zoned Embankment Dam
 Core material:
• It is the barrier layer to the flow of water through the dam.
• This material need to develop high shear strength, low
permeability, low water absorption and undergo minimal
settlement.
 Filter material:
• It is the permeable layer next to the core and use to prevent
the migration of particles from the core to the shell layer
 Downstream shell material:
• It is the layer next to the filter in the downstream.
• Its primary function is to support the core and filter under
any condition.
• To perform its function this layer must be constructed from
strong and stable material such as gravel and rocks
 Transitional zones material:
• This layer is serve as additional filter when the grain size of
core material and shell layer material is greatly differ
 Upstream shell material:
• Like the downstream shell its function is to support the core
and other inner layers.
• However it is submerged by reservoir water and subjected to
its function
 Riprap zone material:
• It is the outer layer of the dam after the upstream shell layer.
• Its main function is to prevent other layers from wave action
of reservoir water.
 Principal tests for geological construction material
1. Polished stone value test
• It can influences the skid resistance of an aggregate by
reducing the surface roughness of aggregate particles
• The aggregate in the bended road line is polish up to seven
times more rapidly than the aggregate in the straight road
• The polishing of road aggregate is more significant when
the road surface is dry than wet
• In the case of igneous and contact metamorphic rocks the
good polishing resistance result from a variation in
hardness between the minerals present in the rock
• Coarser grain size and the presence of cracks in individual
grains also tend to improve the polishing resistance.
• In sedimentary rocks, the presence of hard grains in a softer
matrix can improve the polishing resistance.
 2. Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) test
• It is the mechanical properties of an aggregate that is used to
measure the resistance of an aggregate to crushing under a
gradual applied compressive load or static load
• To perform this test the aggregate sample with 10-14mm
size is subjected to the static load that is increased with a
constant rate up to 400kN
• Than the fine material passing through 2.36mm sieve is
calculated as percentage of original weight of tested sample
and is used as ACV.
• 𝐴𝐶𝑉=𝑀2/𝑀1𝑥100, M1= mass of the tested specimen in g
M2=mass of material passing the 2.36 mm sieve in g
• The low ACV indicates the high crushing resistance or good
quality aggregate material.
 3. Aggregate impact value (AIV) test
• It is one of the aggregate mechanical properties which can be
used to determine the resistance of an aggregate to sudden
shock or impact force
• To perform this test the aggregate sample with 10 -14 mm size
is subjected to 15 blows and the percentage of fine material
passing through 2.36 mm sieve is calculated and used as AIV
• AIV=M2/𝑀1x100% , Where M1=mass of the tested specimen
in g M2=mass of material passing the 2.36 mm sieve in g.
• Small AIV indicates the high resistance of an aggregate to the
impact force (the high quality aggregate material)
 4. Soundness testing

• It use to determine how the aggregate can be affected by the

crystal growth in the pore space of the aggregate from the
precipitation of dissolved pollutant (weathering resistance of
material)
• It is accomplished by repeated immersion of sample in to
the saturated solutions of sodium or magnesium sulfate and
followed by oven drying
• Small soundness value indicates the high resistance of an
aggregate to weathering (the high quality aggregate
material)
 5. Specific gravity test
• It is the relative density or
– the ratio of the density of the material to the density of
distilled water at the stated temperature
• This property of the construction material can controls the
stability condition of the engineering structures by
affecting both
– its vertical and horizontal holding capacity
• Thus, it implies that the material with high specific gravity
shows the heavier and more stable construction material
• It can be expressed as;
– oven-dry (OD) specific gravity,
– saturated surface-dry (SSD) specific gravity or
– as apparent specific gravity
• 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑂𝐷)=𝐴/𝐵−𝐶
• 𝐴𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =𝐴/𝐴−𝐶
• 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑆𝐷)=𝐵/𝐵−𝐶
Where:
A = mass of oven-dry test sample in air, g
B = mass of saturated surface-dry test sample in air, g
C = apparent mass of saturated test sample in water, g
 6. Los Angeles Abrasion (LAA) value test

• This test can be used to measure the abrasive wear

resistance, toughness and durability of the construction
material under the contact force
• The Los Angeles Abrasion value shows the percentage of
aggregate material passing a 1.6 mm sieve after the
completion of the test.
• The more LAA value shows that the construction material is
more susceptible to fragmentation and abrasion or it is
unsuitable material
 7. Water absorption value test
• The water absorption test of the construction material shows the
ability of material to absorb water which indirectly use to
determine the capacity of the material to resist the rapid
deterioration during wetting & drying and freezing & thawing
cycles of the environment
• This test is done by immersing the oven dry rock material into the
water to measure its water absorption
• Water absorption %= (𝐵−𝐴/A)𝑥100 Where; A= the mass of oven-
dry tested sample in g B= the mass of saturated surface-dry tested
sample in g
• Low percentage of water absorption value indicates high quality
construction material
 8. Aggregate shape tests
• The shape of an aggregate can control the interlocking
capacity of an aggregate.
• Flakiness index: it is the percentage of particles, by weight,
whose least dimension (thickness) is less than 0.6 times their
mean dimension.
• Elongation index: it is the percentage of particles, by weight,
whose greatest dimension (length) is greater than 1.8 times
their mean dimension.
• Angularity number: it is a measure of relative angularity based
on the percentage of voids in the aggregate. The least angular
aggregates have about 33% voids, and the angularity number
is defined as the amount by which the percentage of voids
exceeds 33.
• The angularity number ranges from 0 to about 12.
 9. Slake durability test
• This test can be used to measure the existence of clay
minerals such as montmorillonite in the rocks which can
cause the rapid breakdown of the rocks due to theirs high
water absorption (swelling) capacity
• In addition to this the excessive clay material in ballast rock
can restrict the drainage and promote the growth of
vegetation in the ballast section and affect the track
performance.
10. Gradation test
• This test can measure the condition of particle grain size
distribution in the construction material
• The gradation condition of construction material can control
the performance and stability condition of engineering
structures
 6.2 Open Excavation (open trial pit)
• Trial pits are the cheapest method of exploration in shallow
deposits, since these can be used in all types of soils. In this
method, pits are excavated at the site, exposing the sub-soil
surface thoroughly.
• Soil samples are collected at various levels.
• The biggest advantage of this method is that soil strata can
be inspected in their natural condition and samples
(disturbed or undisturbed) can be conveniently taken.
• The method is generally considered suitable for shallow
depths, say up to 3 m.
• The cost of open excavation increases rapidly with depth.
• For greater depths and for excavation below ground water
table, specially in pervious soils, measures for lateral
support and ground water lowering becomes necessary.
 6.3 Tunnels and Tunneling

• Tunnel is one of the underground engineering structures that is

constructed below cities, rivers and through mountains for the
purpose of transportation ( road and railway), water supply,
hydropower generation, irrigation and etc
 Tunnel Excavation

• Tunnels can be excavated by four methods;

1. drilling and blasting method,
2. Tunnel Boring Machines (TBM),
3. Cut and Cover Tunneling and
4. Sequential Excavation Method

1. Excavation by drilling and blasting method

• It is the tunneling method that involves the use of explosives

• Drilling rigs are used to bore blast holes on the proposed
tunnel surface then explosives and timed detonators are
placed in the blast holes.
Advantages of drilling & blasting methods

• Almost any type and cross sectional shapes can be made.

• It can be applied to nearly any type of rock.
• It gives great flexibility in the performance of the excavation.
• The rock support can be installed easily and quickly

Disadvantages of drilling & blasting methods

• Production of gases and smoke from the explosives, which

leads poor working conditions for the team
• Vibrations on nearby structures from the blasting
• The blasting creates new cracks in the rocks, which leads to
increased rock support
2. Excavation by Tunnel Boring Machines (TBM)
• It is a circular tunnel excavation machine consists of a rotating
cutter head and often used for excavating of long tunnels .
• It was developed after World War II, first for the weaker types
and Later the method has been greatly improved to be used also
in harder rocks
• It use for tunnel with diameter been between 3 m and 10 m
• Its capacity can be depend on the strength of rock, degree of
jointing and other weakness planes of rock mass
Advantages using TBM excavation
• It requires less rock supporting
• It is more effective and economic for longer tunnel excavation
• It has higher tunneling capacity
• It gives better working conditions for the team
 Disadvantages of TBM excavation

• More (better) geological information from the pre-investigation

stage is required
• It requires the selection of appropriate equipment for different
rock mass and geological conditions.
• It is a less flexible method than drill & blast method.
• Only longer tunnel sections can be bored more economically
(because of larger investment and rigging costs) than drill and
blast.
• The TBM may get stuck under squeezing rock conditions
• It is difficult to perform / install rock support at the tunnel face.
• In extremely hard rock mass it is an inefficient and
uneconomical and may take longer time than the drill-and-blast
tunneling method.
 Investigating the Stand-up time

• it is the amount of time a tunnel will support itself without any

added structures.
• Knowing this time allows the engineers to determine how much
can be excavated before support is needed.
• The longer the stand-up time is the faster the excavating will go.
• Generally certain configurations of rock and clay will have the
greatest stand-up time, and sand and fine soils will have a much
lower stand-up time.
• It can be controlled by:
1. condition of geological material,
2. groundwater condition,
3. tunnel shape and
4. size (diameter)
 Tunnel Supporting

• It is carried out to improve the stability of the tunnels

• Some examples of tunnel supporting methods are rock
bolting, shotcrete , concrete and steel lining
• Tunnel supporting works are carried out in two main stages:

• Initial support stage: It is installed to secure safe

working conditions for the tunneling team. It also use to
ensure tunnel stability until the secondary or permanent
support system, for example, a concrete lining, is
installed.
• Permanent support: It is carried out to meet the
requirements for a satisfactory function of the tunnel
during its life
 6.4 Tunnel Shaft

• It is the vertical openings to the horizontal tunnel and used

for supplying equipment, personnel and support systems to
the horizontal tunnel and as ventilation shafts and as
emergency exits
• It is the main entrance in and out of the tunnel until the
project is completed
• If a tunnel is going to be long, multiple shafts at various
locations will be bored so that entrance into the tunnel is
closer to the unexcavated area
Tunnel Shaft
Geological problem on Tunnels Tunnels in the soft
ground
• The soft ground can be unconsolidated materials such as
gravels, sand, silt, clays and soft shale
• The tunnel excavation through such ground does not require
blasting, but always need high quality arch support
• It’s short standup time can affect time of tunneling
• If the tunnel that constructed in soft ground is shallow the roof
load is high and it can be the full weight of the overlying
material, so it require a very strong lining support.
Tunnels in the hard rock strata
• Relatively it is more stable than the tunnel that constructed in
the soft ground
• It required the blasting
• Based on the rock mass quality it required different strength of
lining support
• Folded rocks: tunnel driven in synclinal fold has high rock fall
and ground water inflow problem than that driven in the anticline
fold
• Fault zone: the fault zone commonly associated with highly
crushed rocks which is highly permeable and allows ground
water inflow problems in tunnels
 They also form unstable tunnel roof which need strong lining
supports
• Jointed rocks: if the rock is highly jointed it is easy for
excavation but it can cause rock fall and ground water inflow
problems
• Rock bursting: it is a suddenly breaking of rock from the sides of
tunnel excavation which can release hundreds of tones of rock
with explosive force.
The results of a rock burst in an underground mine
in brittle rock subjected to very high stresses.
 6.5 Reservoirs
• A reservoir is a large, artificial lake created by constructing a
dam across a river
• It use to regulate the water supplies during rainy and dry
season for different purposes
Basic Terms of the reservoirs
• Full reservoir level (FRL): it is the highest water level to
which the water surface will rise during normal operating
conditions. It is the level at which the effective storage of the
reservoir is computed. It is equal to the crest level of the
Spillway
• Minimum pool level: it is the lowest level up to which the
water is withdrawn from the reservoir under ordinary
conditions which is corresponds to the elevation of the lowest
outlet of the dam
• The storage below the minimum pool level is not useful for
hydroelectric power and is called the dead storage
• Useful storage: it is the volume of water stored between the
full reservoir level (FRL) and the minimum pool level
• Surcharge storage: it is the volume of water stored above the
full reservoir level up to the maximum water level.
• It is an uncontrolled storage which exists only when the river is
in flood and the flood water is passing over the spillway.
• Yield from a reservoir: it is the volume of water which can be
withdrawn from a reservoir in a specified period of time
• Safe yield: it is the maximum quantity of water which can be
supplied from a reservoir in a specified period of time during a
critical dry year.
• To determine it the history of natural flow of the river for a
number of years was recorded
• Secondary yield: It is the quantity of water which is available
during the period of high flow in the rivers which is more than
the safe yield
• Average yield: It is the arithmetic average of the firm yield
and the secondary yield over a long period of time
Geological problems associated to the dams
reservoirs
Characteristics of the catchment area
• Storage capacity which can be controlled by topography of the
site and dam height
• The water tightness condition of the reservoir basin to control
the seepage and leakage.
• E.g due to the existence of solution channels, fault zones,
buried channels, permeable strata and etc.
• The slope stability condition of the valley (reservoirs rims),
which can reduce the volume of the reservoir or produce a tidal
wave that may over-top the dam and cause flooding
downstream.
• E.g in 1964 due to the reservoir slope instability of Vajoit dam
2000 people were killed.
• In addition to the water tightness condition of the reservoir
material the total head of groundwater in the reservoir area can
control the leakage condition of the dam reservoir.
• That mean if the total head of ground water exceed the reservoir
level there is no leakage of reservoir water.
 6.6 Dams and Dam Sites
• Dam is a hydraulic structure of fairly impervious material
built across a river to create a reservoir on its upstream side
for impounding water for various purposes

• Dam is constructed for the following purpose

• Hydropower Generation
• Irrigation Purpose
• Domestic and industrial water supply
• Flood Controlling
• Ground Water Recharge
• Water Diversion
• Fish Farming and Recreation facilities
 Different parts and terminology's of dam
• Crest: it is the top parts of the dam structure that use to
providing a roadway or walkway over the dam.
• Parapet walls: Low Protective walls on either side of the
roadway or walkway on the crest.
• Heel: Portion of structure in contact with ground or river-bed
at upstream side.
• Toe: Portion of structure in contact with ground or river-bed at
downstream side.
• Spillway: It is the structure near to the top of structure for the
passage of surplus/ excessive water from the reservoir.
• It use to control the overflow of reservoir water when the
reservoir is full.
• Its size and location with respect to the dam is determined by
the size and kind of dam, local topography, geology and
History of stream flow at the site of the dam.
• Abutments: The valley slopes on either side of the dam
wall to which the left & right end of dam are fixed to.
• Sluice way: Opening in the structure near the base, provided
to clear the silt accumulation in the reservoir.
• Gallery: it is the gently sloping tunnel like passage at
transverse or longitudinal within the dam with drain on
floor for seepage water.
• These are generally provided for having space for
drilling grout holes and drainage holes.
• These may also be used to accommodate the
instrumentation for studying the performance of dam.
• Free board: The space between the highest level of water
in the reservoir and the top of the structure.
• Dead Storage level: Level of permanent storage below
which the water will not be withdrawn.
• Diversion Tunnel: Tunnel constructed to divert or change
the direction of water to bypass the dam construction site.
• The hydraulic structures are built while the river
flows through the diversion tunnel.
 Classification of dam
• Dams can be classified in number of ways

I. Based on the construction material dams can has three

major classes.
1. Concrete dams
2. Embankment Dams
3. Composite dams

1. Concrete dams
• Based on theirs structural features (design) concrete dams
can be classified as:
1.1 Gravity Dams
• It is a concrete or masonry dam that has Trapezoidal cross
section .
• It resists the forces acting on it by its own weight
(gravitational force).
• As the entire load is transmitted
on the small area of foundation.
• This dams must be constructed
on a very competent foundation
rock.

Gravity dam
 Advantages Gravity dams

• It is quite strong, stable and durable

• It is quite suitable across moderately wide valleys and
gorges having steep slopes where earth dams is not suitable
• It can be constructed to very great heights, if good rock
foundations are available.
• It is well adapted for use as an overflow spillway section.
• The maintenance cost of a gravity dam is very low.
• The gravity dam does not fail suddenly.
̶ There is enough warning, so the valuable property
and human life can be saved to some extent.
• The sedimentation in the reservoir on the upstream of a
gravity dam can be somewhat reduced by operation of deep-
set sluice way
 Disadvantages of Gravity dams

• Gravity dams of great height can be constructed only on

sound rock foundations.
• The initial cost of a gravity dam is usually high
• It require more concrete than arc and butters dams
• It usually take a longer time in construction
• It require more skilled labor than that in earth dams.
 1.2 Arch Dams

• It is a curved concrete dam, convex upstream and

resists the forces acting on it by arch action.
• Relative to other concrete dams it need Less material
(cheaper)
• It is suitable in narrow valley or V-shaped valley, having
very steep slopes and with strong abutment rocks.
• It transfers the water pressure and other forces mainly to
the abutments by arch action.
Arch Dam
 Advantages of Arc Dam
• It requires less concrete as compared to a gravity dam
• It is more suited to narrow, V-shaped valley, having very steep
slopes.
• Uplift pressure is not an important factor in its design
• It can be constructed on a relatively less strong foundation

Disadvantages of Arc Dam

• It requires good quality rock in the abutments side
• It requires sophisticated formwork, more skilled labor and
better concrete.
• It cannot be constructed in very cold climates because of
spalling due to alternate freezing and thawing.
• The speed of construction is relatively slow
 1.3 Buttress Dams

• It can call as hollow gravity dam because it require only 35-

50% of the concrete used by solid gravity dam.

• It is supported by equally spaced triangular masonry or

reinforced concrete walls what we call buttresses.

• This triangular concrete walls (buttress) is use to transmit the

water pressure from the deck slab to the foundation.
Butters Dam
 Advantages of Buttress Dam
• It require less concrete than gravity dams
• The uplift pressure is not a major factor in its design
• Power house and water treatment plants, etc. can be housed
between buttresses.
• The vertical component of the water pressure on deck prevents
the dam against overturning and sliding failures.
Disadvantages of Butters Dam
• Buttress dams require higher formwork, reinforcement and more
skilled labor.
• Consequently, the overall cost of construction may be more than
that of a gravity dam.
• It cannot be constructed in very cold climates because of
spalling of concrete.
• Because the upstream deck slab is thin, its deterioration may
have very serious effect on the stability.
 2. Embankment Dams
• It is a non-rigid dam which resists the forces acting on it by
its shear strength and to some extent also by its own weight
(gravity)
• They are constructed where the foundation material are
weak to support the rigid dams or where the suitable
competent rocks are at greater depth.
• They are relatively smaller in height and broad at the base
• They are not suitable for narrow gorges with steep slopes
• It have high resistance to deferential settlement, so it can be
constructed on a great variety of foundations ranging from
weak unconsolidated stream or glacial deposits to high-
strength rocks.
• Cannot be designed as an overflow section.
• A spillway has to be located away from the dam.
• Embankment dams have high resistance to damage from
earthquakes.
• However, inadequate quality control during construction such
as poor compaction can lead the Liquefaction problems.
• To minimize the Liquefaction potential of embankment dam
keeping material from being saturated and providing adequate
compaction during construction time
• The embankment dams have impervious zone which can be
constructed from concrete, clay material and asphalt.
• Based on size of construction material it can be:
 Earth Fill Dams
 Rock Fill Dams
 Earth Fill Dams
• They are mainly built with clay, sand, gravel and rocks
• It can be zoned or homogeneous structure
• A zoned dam composed of several zones that increase in
permeability from the core towards the outer slopes (shells or
shoulders)
• Homogeneous composed from a single zone
• They have the waterproof layer called core that prevents water
from seeping through the structure.
• To prevent internal erosion of the core clay layer due to
seepage forces we use a filter layer which designed to prevent
the migration of fine grain soil particles.
• If the earth dam is built on a pervious foundation, a concrete
cut-off wall or a steel sheet pile line is also provided in the
continuation of the core section.
 Rock fill dams
• It is built of rock fragments and boulders of large size
• Its an impervious membrane which is usually made of cement
concrete or asphaltic concrete is placed on the upstream side to
reduce the seepage through the dam
• It require foundation stronger than those for earth dams
• If we use the earth core as impervious layer it is necessary to
provide adequate filters between the earth core and the rock fill
on the upstream and downstream sides of the core so that the
soil particles are not carried by water and piping does not occur
• It require heavy machines for transporting, dumping and
compacting rocks
 Advantages Embankment Dams
• It is usually cheaper than gravity dams if suitable construction
material is available near the site.
• It can be constructed on almost all types of foundations
• It can be constructed in a relatively short period of time
• The skilled labor is not required in construction
• It has more earthquake-resistant than others dams.
Disadvantages of Embankment Dams
• It is not suitable in narrow gorges with steep slopes
• It cannot be designed as an overflow section. A spillway has to be
located away from the dam.
• Its maintenance cost is quite high. It requires constant supervision.
• Sluice way cannot be provided in it to remove slit.
• It can be fails suddenly without any sign
 3. Composite dams
• It is the type of dam which have both concrete and
embankment sections within it .
• It is design for the sites that are geologically unsuitable for a
specific type of dam
For example, a broad valley that has strong rocks on one side and
weaker ones on the other can be suitable for gravity and
embankment composite dam
 II. Based on theirs height dam can be classified as
• Large Dam: If the height of the dam is bigger than 100m
• Medium Dam: If the height of the dam is between 50m
and 100m
• Small Dam: If the height of the dam is lower than 50m

III. Based on theirs functions dam can be classified as

 Storage dams:
• They are constructed to store water during the rainy season
for later use in dry season.
• It can use for a water supply, irrigation and fish farming,
for hydroelectric power generation, for a flood control
project.
• It is the most common type of dams.
 Detention dams:
• It is constructed for flood control.
• It retards the flow in the river on its downstream during
floods by storing some flood water.
• Thus the effect of sudden floods is reduced to some extent
and the water retained in the reservoir is later released
gradually at a controlled rate according to the carrying
capacity of the channel downstream of the detention dam.
 Debris dams:
• It is constructed to retain debris such as sand, gravel, and
drift wood flowing in the river with water.
• The water after passing over a debris dam is relatively
clear.
 Diversion dams:
• It is constructed to diverting water of the river into an off-
taking canal (or a conduit).
• It is usually of low height and has a small storage
reservoir on its upstream.
 Coffer dams:
• It is a temporary barrier constructed to exclude water from
an area that is normally submerged.
• It is made commonly of wood, concrete or steel sheet and
used to allow construction on the foundation of permanent
dams, bridges, and similar structures.
 IV. Based on Hydraulic Design
 Overflow dams:
• It is designed to act as an overflow structure.
• The surplus water in the reservoir is permitted
to pass over the crest which acts as a spillway.
• Most of the time it is common for the concrete
dams
 Non-overflow dams:
• There is no overflow water on the crest the
surplus water in the reservoir is permitted to
pass over the spillway.
• It is common for the embankment dams,
however it is possible for any type of dams
 Common factors controlling the dam site selectıon

• Generally the selection of dam type for a given site can be

determined both by engineering suitability of the site and
economic consideration.
• The type and size of dam constructed depends on the need
for and the amount of water available, topography and valley
shape, foundation condition of the site, the availability of
suitable construction materials at the site, accessibility of the
site, good site for reservoir, spillway position, earthquakes
magnitude, climatic conditions, overall cost of the project,
diversion problems and etc.
 There are different geological conditions those control the
type and size of dam will be constructed at a given site
• The morphological configuration of the valley can control
the type of dams
• Geological features such as fault, cavernous, buried
channels, rock slide and others can affect the dam
foundation
• For the gravity and buttress dams the rocks at the valley
floor must has high quality while for the arch dams the
rocks at the valley side must has good quality. Because the
arch dams transmit the water pressure to the valley side.
 Different orientation of sedimentary rocks layers can control
the seepage and stability condition of dams
• E.g folded layer problem such as syncline and anticline
geological structures
• The existence of shale at the dam foundation can affect the
stability of dam, because it has low bearing capacity and its
flackness condition can cause the sliding of dam foundation
along its bed
Geological condition those control the site of
Embankment dams

• The existence of adequate construction material at the

reasonable distance
• The permeability condition of foundation material
• the availability of suitable site for outlets and spillways
• The slope angle at the abutment side
 In general when we select the dam site we must
consider the following things
• The competent of foundation rock to withstand the static and
dynamic forces
• The slope stability of reservoir rim and abutment side
• the resistance of foundation rock to weathering, sliding and
differential settlement
• The water tightness of foundation and reservoir rim
• The topography and strength of abutment rock
• The suitability and availability of construction material
• The location of spillway, diversion tunnel and powerhouse
 Envıronmental impacts of dam construction
• It can cause river pollution, air pollution and noise
pollution
• It cause loss of land, loss of archeological and historical
places, loss of mineral deposits, loss of special geological
formations
• It can cause reservoir induced seismicity (earthquake)
• It can cause flooding problems
 Geological problems on dam site
• Fissile rocks such as shales, slates and phyllites, interbedded
ashes in a sequence of basalt lava flows cause the sliding of
concrete dams.
• The highly permeable rock masses can cause excessive
seepage beneath a dam may damage the foundation
• Seepage rates can be lowered by using cut-off beneath the
dam .
• Young igneous rocks with highly permeability via their open
joints, pipes, cavities and contact zone
• Weak beds of ash and tuff may occur between the basalt
flows that cause problems of differential settlement or
sliding
• Fresh metamorphosed rocks such as quartzite and hornfels
and gneiss are suitable dam foundation
• Joints and shear zones are responsible to permit leakage
through foundations and abutments.
• Foliated regional metamorphic rocks
• Sandstones frequently interbedded with shale
• karstic areas
• Fault zones
• Swelling rocks: such as shale, unconsolidated tuff and
anhydrite rocks are affect the stability of tunnel
• To stabilize them it need strong lining support and also they
must be protected from wetting
• Inclined rock strata: when the tunnel is driven parallel to
the strike of rock strata, the block of rock fall into the tunnel
and affect the stability of the tunnel
• But if it driven across the strike it can pass through different
strata and the ground water inflow problem may occur
The end