PHYSICS Science Checkpoints

MEASUREMENTS
Length: The measurement of how long or short an object is,
usually in meters (m) or centimeters (cm).
Mass: The measurement of the amount of matter in an object,
usually in kilograms (kg) or grams (g).
Time: The measurement of the duration of an event or action,
usually in seconds (s) or minutes (min).
Temperature: The measurement of the amount of heat in a
system, usually in degrees Celsius (°C) or Fahrenheit (°F).
Electric current: The measurement of the flow of electrical
charge through a conductor, usually in amperes (A) or
milliamperes (mA).
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 MEASUREMENTS
Voltage: The measurement of the electrical potential
difference between two points, usually in volts (V) or
millivolts (mV).
Frequency: The measurement of the number of cycles per
unit of time, usually in Hertz (Hz) or kilohertz (kHz).
Force: The measurement of the amount of push or pull
applied to an object, usually in Newtons (N) or pounds (lb).
Pressure: The measurement of the force applied per unit
area, usually in Pascals (Pa) or pounds per square inch (psi).
Energy: The measurement of the ability of an object to do
work, usually in Joules (J) or kilowatt-hours (kWh)
These measurements are fundamental to many areas of
physics and are used to describe and analyze a wide variety
of physical phenomena.
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 FORCES AND MOTION
Motion: The change in position of an object over time.
Speed: The distance an object travels in a certain amount of time.
Velocity: The speed of an object in a particular direction.
Acceleration: The rate of change of velocity over time.
Force: A push or pull on an object that can cause it to accelerate.
Friction: The force that opposes motion between two surfaces
that are in contact.
Gravity: The force of attraction between two objects with mass.
Weight: The force exerted on an object due to gravity.
Momentum: The product of an object's mass and velocity.
FORCES AND MOTION
Newton's Laws of Motion: There are three
laws of motion
1) an object at rest tends to stay at rest,
and an object in motion tends to stay in
motion unless acted upon by an external
force
2) the force applied to an object is equal
to its mass times its acceleration
3) for every action, there is an equal and
opposite reaction
 ENERGY
Energy: The ability of an object to do work or cause a change in
its environment.
Kinetic energy: The energy an object possesses due to its
motion. It is proportional to the mass of the object and the
square of its velocity.
Potential energy: The energy an object possesses due to its
position or configuration. It is proportional to the force acting
on the object and the distance the object can be moved.
Conservation of energy: Energy can neither be created nor
destroyed, it can only be transformed from one form to another.
This principle is known as the law of conservation of energy.
Work: The product of a force and the distance through which it
acts. Work is done when an object is moved by a force.
ENERGY
 ENERGY
Power: The rate at which work is done or energy is
transferred. It is measured in watts (W).
Heat: A form of energy that is transferred from one
object to another due to a temperature difference.
Temperature: A measure of the average kinetic
energy of the particles in a substance.
Heat capacity: The amount of heat required to
raise the temperature of an object by one degree.
Specific heat capacity: The amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of one unit of
mass of a substance by one degree.
ENERGY
 ENERGY TRANSFERS
Energy transfer: The movement of energy
from one object to another or from one form
to another.
Conduction: The transfer of heat through
direct contact between two objects.
Convection: The transfer of heat through the
movement of fluids or gases.
Radiation: The transfer of energy through
electromagnetic waves.
Thermal conductivity: The ability of a
material to conduct heat.
 ENERGY TRANSFERS
Insulation: The ability of a material to resist the
flow of heat.
Work: The transfer of energy through a force
applied over a distance.
Power: The rate at which work is done or
energy is transferred.
Efficiency: The ratio of useful work or energy
output to the total energy input.
Renewable energy: Energy sources that can be
replenished over time, such as solar, wind, and
hydroelectric power
 THE EARTHS AND BEYOND
Gravity: The force of attraction between two objects with
mass. It is responsible for the motion of planets and stars.
Orbits: The curved path of an object around another object,
such as a planet around a star. Orbits are determined by the
gravitational force between two objects.
Planetary motion: The motion of planets around the sun. This
motion is influenced by gravity and can be described using
Kepler's laws of planetary motion.
Satellites: Objects that orbit around a planet or other celestial
body. Satellites can be natural, such as the moon, or man-
made, such as communication and weather satellites.
The solar system: The sun and the eight planets that orbit
around it. The planets are classified as inner or outer planets
based on their distance from the sun.
 THE EARTHS AND BEYOND
The universe: The vast expanse of space that contains all matter and energy. The universe is
constantly expanding and contains countless galaxies, stars, and planets.
Light years: The distance light travels in one year. It is used to measure distances in space.
Black holes: Extremely dense regions of space where the gravitational force is so strong
that nothing, not even light, can escape.
Dark matter and energy: Mysterious substances that are thought to make up most of the
matter and energy in the universe. They cannot be directly observed but are inferred from
their gravitational effects.
Cosmology: The study of the origin, evolution, and structure of the universe.
 SPEED
Speed: The distance traveled by an object in a given
amount of time. It is measured in meters per second (m/s)
or kilometers per hour (km/h).
Velocity: The speed of an object in a given direction. It is a
vector quantity that includes both magnitude and direction.
Acceleration: The rate at which an object's velocity
changes over time. It is also a vector quantity that includes
both magnitude and direction.
Uniform motion: The motion of an object moving with
constant speed and in a straight line.
Non-uniform motion: The motion of an object that is
changing speed or direction.
 SPEED
Distance-time graphs: Graphs that show the
distance traveled by an object over time. The
slope of the graph represents the speed of the
object.
Speed-time graphs: Graphs that show the speed of
an object over time. The slope of the graph
represents the acceleration of the object.
Average speed: The total distance traveled by an
object divided by the total time taken.
Instantaneous speed: The speed of an object at a
specific moment in time.
Relative motion: The motion of an object relative
to a reference point. It can be used to describe the
motion of an object with respect to another object
or observer.
 SOUND
Sound waves: Longitudinal waves that travel through a
medium, such as air, water, or solids. They are characterized
by their frequency, wavelength, and amplitude.
Frequency: The number of complete waves that pass a given
point in one second. It is measured in hertz (Hz).
Wavelength: The distance between two consecutive points
on a wave that are in phase. It is measured in meters (m).
Amplitude: The maximum displacement of a wave from its
rest position. It is measured in meters (m) or decibels (dB).
Pitch: The subjective perception of the frequency of a
sound. High-frequency sounds are perceived as high pitch,
while low-frequency sounds are perceived as low pitch.
 SOUND
Loudness: The subjective perception of the amplitude of a
sound. It is measured in decibels (dB) and depends on the
amplitude of the sound wave.
Echoes: Reflected sound waves that return to the listener after
bouncing off a surface.
Resonance: The tendency of an object to vibrate at its natural
frequency in response to a sound wave of the same frequency.
Doppler effect: The change in frequency of a sound wave
caused by the motion of the source or the listener. It is
responsible for the change in pitch of a siren as it passes by.
Sound insulation: The ability of a material to reduce the
transmission of sound. It depends on the density and thickness
of the material.
 Electromagnetic waves: Waves that consist of oscillating
electric and magnetic fields and can travel through a
vacuum. Light is an example of an electromagnetic wave.
LIGHT Visible spectrum: The range of wavelengths of light that
can be detected by the human eye. It includes colors from
red (longest wavelength) to violet (shortest wavelength).
Reflection: The bouncing back of light waves when they
encounter a surface. The angle of incidence (angle
between the incoming light and the normal) is equal to the
angle of reflection (angle between the reflected light and
the normal).
Refraction: The bending of light waves when they pass
through a medium with a different refractive index. The
amount of bending depends on the angle of incidence and
the refractive indices of the two media.
Total internal reflection: The complete reflection of light
waves back into the same medium when they encounter a
boundary at an angle greater than the critical angle.
 LIGHT
Dispersion: The separation of light into its component colors by refraction through a prism or
other transparent material.
Lenses: Transparent objects with curved surfaces that refract light and can form images.
Convex lenses converge light and form real images, while concave lenses diverge light and
form virtual images.
Magnification: The ratio of the size of an image to the size of the object. It depends on the
focal length of the lens and the distance between the lens and the object.
Optical instruments: Devices that use lenses or mirrors to magnify or manipulate light.
Examples include microscopes, telescopes, and cameras.
Electromagnetic spectrum: The entire range of electromagnetic waves, including radio waves,
microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays.
 Magnetic fields: The region around a magnet where
its magnetic force can be detected. It is represented
MAGNETISM by magnetic field lines that indicate the direction of
the force.
Magnetic materials: Materials that can be magnetized,
such as iron, nickel, and cobalt.
Magnetic poles: The two ends of a magnet, north and
south. Like poles repel each other, while opposite
poles attract each other.
Magnetic domains: Small regions within a magnetic
material where the magnetic fields are aligned. When
a magnet is magnetized, its domains become aligned
in the same direction.
Electromagnetism: The interaction between electric
currents and magnetic fields. A current-carrying wire
produces a magnetic field, and a moving magnetic
field induces a current in a wire.
MAGNETISM
Electromagnetic induction: The generation of an electric current in a wire by a changing
magnetic field. This is the principle behind generators and transformers.
Magnetic forces: The forces that magnetic fields exert on charged particles or other
magnets. They are perpendicular to the direction of motion of the charged particles.
Magnetic field strength: The strength of a magnetic field at a given point. It is measured
in teslas (T).
Magnetic flux: The measure of the strength of a magnetic field over a given area. It is
measured in webers (Wb).
Magnetic shielding: The use of materials that can redirect or absorb magnetic fields.
This is important in reducing interference between electronic devices.
 Electric charge: A fundamental property of matter
ELECTROMAGNETISM
that can be positive or negative.
Coulomb's law: The law that describes the
electrostatic force between two charges. It states that
the force is directly proportional to the product of the
charges and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them.
Electric field: The region around a charged particle
where its electric force can be detected. It is
represented by electric field lines that indicate the
direction of the force.
Electric potential energy: The energy that a charged
particle possesses due to its position in an electric
field.
Electric potential difference: The difference in
electric potential energy between two points in an
electric field. It is measured in volts (V).
 ELECTROMAGNETISM
Electric current: The flow of electric charge through a conductor. It is measured in amperes (A).
Resistance: The property of a material that opposes the flow of electric current. It is measured in ohms (Ω).
Ohm's law: The law that describes the relationship between current, voltage, and resistance in a circuit. It
states that the current is directly proportional to the voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance.
Direct current (DC): The type of current that flows in one direction in a circuit, such as in batteries.
Alternating current (AC): The type of current that periodically reverses its direction in a circuit, such as in
power grids.
Electromagnetic waves: Waves that consist of oscillating electric and magnetic fields and can travel through
a vacuum. They are produced by the acceleration of charged particles.
Electromagnetic spectrum: The entire range of electromagnetic waves, including radio waves, microwaves,
infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays.
Electromagnetic induction: The generation of an electric current in a wire by a changing magnetic field.
This is the principle behind generators and transformers.