UNIT 3

PHYSICAL SEPARATION PROCESS

• FILTRATION
• SIEVING
• GRAVITY SEPARATION
 FILTRATION
• Filtration is the process of passing a fluid containing suspended particles through a porous
medium.
• The medium traps the suspended solids producing a clarified filtrate.
• Surface filtration is a process where the filtrate passes across the thickness of a porous sheet
while the suspended solids are retained on the surface of the sheet. A sheet with large pores
has low resistance to flow therefore filtrate flow is rapid, however, small particles may pass
through resulting in a cloudy filtrate. Surface filtration allows no cake accumulation.
Flow stops when solids cover the pores. If the solids do not adhere to the filter surface, the
filter may be regenerated by backwashing the surface.
• Filtration sterilization of beer using microporous filters is a form of surface filtration.
• Pg 475-477
FILTRATION
 FILTRATION

• Filter aid, referred to as “body feed,” is continuously added to the suspension during filtration
• Body feed filter aid concentration is usually in the range of one to two times the suspended
solids concentration.
• FILTRATE FLOW THROUGH FILTER CAKE

In filter aid filtration, filtrate flow through the pores in the cake is dependent on the pressure
difference across the cake and the resistance to the flow. The total resistance increases with
increase in cake thickness, thus filtrate flow decreases with time of filtration. The resistance to
filtrate flow across the filter cake is known as the specific cake resistance.
FILTER TYPES
 PRESSURE-DRIVEN MEMBRANE
SEPARATION PROCESSES
• Microfiltration (MF): particle size retained on the membrane is in the range of 0.02 to 10 m.
sterilizing filtration is a mf process.
• Ultrafiltration (UF): particle size retained on the membrane is in the range of 0.001 to 0.02 m.
concentration of cheese whey and removal of lactose is a uf process.
• Reverse osmosis (RO): solute molecules with molecular size less than 0.001 m (molecular
weight <1000 daltons) are retained on the membrane surface. It is a purification process that
uses a semi-permeable membrane (synthetic lining) to filter out unwanted molecules and
large particles such as contaminants and sediments like chlorine, salt, and dirt from drinking
water.
• Pg 488-89
 SIEVING

• Sieving is a physical mechanism of

particle removal, where a particle is
denied access through a pore or
passageway that is smaller than the
particle itself.
• Depending on the types of particles,
sieves with different types and sizes of
holes are used.
• Pg 503
 GRAVITY SEPARATION

• It relies on the difference in specific gravities

• It is a gravity separation appliance that works
on Stokes Law.
• Stokes law involves a consideration of the
physical forces that influence the behavior of
a particle in a fluid.
 DRAG FORCE BY STROKE’S LAW

• Stokes' law can explain the floatation of

clouds. Since raindrops are smaller in size,
their terminal velocities are small. Therefore,
they remain suspended in the air in the form
of clouds. As they increase their size, their
terminal velocities increase, and they start
falling in the form of rain.
• Pg 505
 MASS TRANSFER

• LEACHING
• SUPER CRITICAL EXTRACTION
• MASS DIFFUSION
• PSYCHROMETRY

• PG 516 14.2 GENERAL PRINCIPLES ,14.2.3 EQUILIBRIUM

 LEACHING

• SOLID- LIQUID LEACHING – BASIC

OPERATION OF SEPARATING 1 OR
MORE COMPONENTS IN A SOLID
PHASE BY LIQUID PHASE
• SOLUBLE PHASE – SOLUTE ,
INSOLUBLE PHASE – INERT
 LEACHING

• leaching is actually two important actions

occurring simultaneously:
(1) chemical interactions with surfaces

(2) physical movement of water.

• As the water passes through the rock and soil,
it interacts with the surfaces of the materials.
compounds on the surface of minerals can be
become dissolved.
• The physical movement of water can dislodge
and move particles.
 MASS TRANSFER - MASS DIFFUSION

• during dehydration, water is vaporized only from the surface. the transfer of water vapor from
the wet surface to a stream of moving air is analogous to convection heat transfer, but mass
transfer takes place, therefore a mass transfer coefficient is used.
• When water is removed from the surface, water diffuses from the interior of a solid toward the
surface. the latter is a general form of diffusion that is analogous to conduction heat transfer.
• The differential equations for conduction also applies for diffusion, but a mass diffusivity is used
in place of the thermal diffusivity.
 MASS DIFFUSION
• During the early stages of dehydration, moisture is transferred and moves from the center toward the
surface by capillary action. this mechanism is more rapid than diffusion, and rate of surface evaporation
controls the rate of drying.
• Diffusivity may be constant if cells do not collapse and pack together. Firm solids such as grain may
exhibit constant diffusivity, but high-moisture products such as fruits and vegetables may exhibit
variable diffusivity with moisture content depending on the physical changes that occur as water is
removed.

• where x is moisture content at any time, dry matter basis (kg water/kg dry matter),x0 is initial moisture
content, and xm is equilibrium moisture content.
• Equilibrium moisture content of a material is, the point at which the material is neither gaining or losing
moisture. It depends on the relative humidity and temperature of the material.
 SIMULTANEOUS HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

• In dehydration, moisture is removed by evaporation. heat must be transferred to equal the heat of
vaporization. if the rate of mass transfer exceeds heat transfer needed to supply the heat of
vaporization, the material will drop in temperature. this process is called evaporative cooling
• dww/dt is mass of water transferred, hi is the humidity at the interface where water is vaporized,
and h is the humidity of the drying air. hi is the equilibrium humidity at the interface at the
temperature at the interface. when the temperature at the interface drops, hi will also drop and the
rate of mass transfer will slow down according to equation
 SUPER CRITICAL EXTRACTION

• Supercritical fluid extraction may be done on solids or liquids.

• The solvent is a dense gas at conditions of temperature and pressure where further increase in
pressure or a reduction in temperature will not result in a phase change from gas to liquid.
• The density of a supercritical fluid, however, is almost that of a liquid, but it is not a liquid.
• The solubility of solutes in a supercritical fluid approaches the solubility in a liquid. Thus, the
principle of solute extraction from solids using a supercritical fluid is very similar to that for
solid-liquid extractions.
 PSYCHROMETRY

• Psychrometrics is the study of the thermodynamic properties of air–vapour mixtures, typically

focusing on the interrelation among temperature, partial pressures and enthalpy.
• designing proper air conditioning systems for buildings, where the air should be not too dry or moist,
to make the environment comfortable; moreover, moisture build up on walls must be prevented.
• Humidity (absolute humidity) (H): the mass ratio of water to dry air in the mixture.
• Relative humidity (% RH): the ratio of partial pressure of water in the air to the vapor pressure of
water, expressed in a percentage.
• Dry bulb temperature (Tdb): actual air temperature measured using a dry temperature sensing
element.
• Wet bulb temperature (Twb): air temperature measured using a wet sensing element that allows
cooling by evaporation of water.
• Dew point (Tdp): temperature to which a given air-water mixture needs to be cooled to start
condensation of water. At the dew point, the air is saturated with water vapor. The dew point is also
that temperature where the vapor pressure of water equals the partial pressure of water in the air.
CHART
 DRYING

• SPRAY DRYING
• FREEZE DRYING
• VACUUM BELT DRYING

PG 461-470
SPRAY DRYER
 SPRAY DRYING

• Spray drying is a process where a liquid droplet is rapidly dried as it comes in contact with a
stream of hot air. the atomized feed travels concurrent with the drying air. The small size of the
liquid droplets allows very rapid drying and the residence time of the material inside the spray
drier is in the order of seconds.
• The dried material is separated from air in a cyclone separator. The dried material is
continuously withdrawn and cooled. Heat could damage the product if contact with the high
temperature drying air is prolonged.
• rate of degradative reactions in foods slows down at low moisture contents. Thus, the portion of
the drying process where product temperatures goes higher than the wet bulb temperature does
not result in severe heat damage to the product.
 SPRAY DRYING

• A major requirement of successful spray drying is the reduction of the moisture content of a liquid
droplet to a dryness level that would prevent the particle from sticking to a solid surface, as the
particle impinges on that surface. The rate of drying of the particles must be such that from the time
the particle leaves the atomizer to the time it impinges upon the walls of the spray drier, the particle is
dry.
 FREEZE DRYING

• Dehydration carried out at low absolute pressures will allow the vaporization of water from the
solid phase to carry out freeze drying successfully, the absolute pressure in the drying chamber
must be maintained at least 620 pa.
FREEZE DRYER
 FREEZE DRYER

• A schematic diagram of a freeze drier. The absolute pressure inside the drying chamber is determined by the
temperature at which the vapor trap is maintained. This pressure corresponds to the vapor pressure over ice
at the vapor trap temperature. The vacuum pump is designed primarily to exhaust the vacuum chamber at
the start of the operation and to remove noncondensing gases and whatever air leaked into the system. The
volume of vaporized water at the low absolute pressures in freeze drying is very large; therefore, removal of
the vapor by the vacuum pump alone would require a very large pump. Condensing the vaporized water in
the form of ice in the vapor trap is an efficient means of reducing the volume of gases to be removed from
the system by the vacuum pump.
VACUUM BELT DRYER
 VACUUM BELT DRYING

• Principle of operation: a vacuum belt dryer is used to dry heat-sensitive pasty materials and concentrated
solutions. the system consists of a long cylinder with a continuous conveyor belt traversing the diameter the
whole length of the cylinder. product is deposited on the belt at one end of the unit and water is evaporated as
the belt moves forward until the dried product falls off the belt into a receiver tank at the opposite end.
• Energy transfer: energy to vaporize water is applied to the product on the belt by conduction from the bottom
and radiation from the top. A heated plate under the belt heats the product by conduction. above the conveyor
is another heated plate that transfers energy to the paste by radiation. the temperatures of the top and bottom
plates are independently controlled and are set to the maximum temperature that would permit complete drying
of the product when the belt makes a turn into the opposite direction. temperatures must be optimized to avoid
heat-induced degradation reactions.
 VACUUM BELT DRYER

• vacuum: initial evacuation of air from the unit must be done rapidly, and a low absolute pressure
must be maintained so that water vapor removal from the product is heat transfer rather than
mass transfer controlled. water vapor and non condensable gases entering the cylinder must be
evacuated using a liquid ring seal mechanical vacuum pump or a steam jet ejector. typically, an
absolute pressure of not more than 50 mm hg is maintained inside the cylinder. inadequate
vacuum pump capacity will be manifested by condensation of water vapor on the cylinder walls.
to facilitate evacuation of water vapor, dry air from the outside is continuously bled into the unit
at a slow rate.
 VACUUM BELT DRYER

• Continuous feeding of wet product:

• the paste to be dried is pumped into the unit and is discharged on the surface of the conveyor belt through a nozzle at
the tip of a wand that slowly oscillates from one side of the conveyor belt to the other.
• Typically, the rate of addition of the paste and the speed of side to side movement of the wand is such that a thin
uniform layer of paste is deposited on the belt.
• As the paste on the belt receives energy from the heated plates, vapor is generated because of the elevated
temperature and low absolute pressure. Product on the belt will foam. If the foam forms a thick layer, a porous
layer of dried solid forms at the top and bottom hindering heat transfer into the wet middle layer.
• Ideally, the thickness of the foam should be such that drying will continue throughout the whole thickness all the
way to the end of the belt.
• Spattering of wet material on the belt must be avoided because the spatter will be deposited on the surface of the
plate above the belt and interfere with radiant heat transfer.
• The combination, vacuum, upper and lower heated plate temperature, and thickness of the deposited layer of wet
product on the belt must be carefully regulated to dry successfully in this system.
 VACUUM BELT DRYER

• Operating the drier: Drying time can be controlled by slowing down the speed of the belt. However, to operate
at maximum drying capacity, heated plate temperatures must be elevated and too long a residence time of the wet
product in the heated zone could result in scorching of the product. Conditions must be optimized for each product
dried. The paste density, foaming tendency, thermophysical properties and radiant energy absorption all play
a role in the rate of dehydration.
Thank you!