Dielectrics and

optical
properties of
materials
Dielectrics are insulating
materials that exhibit the
property of electrical polarization

The study of dielectric properties

is concerned with the storage and
dissipation of electric and
magnetic energy in materials
Dielectric  Permittivity
Constant r 
May be a 0
tensor
 Permittivity and Permeability Definitions
Permittivity Permeability
(Dielectric Constant)

  ' "
    r   r  j r  
' "
  r  jr
0 0
•interaction of a interaction of a
material in the material in the
presence of an presence of an
external electric external magnetic
field.
field.
 Loss Tangent

r "

tan   '
r

1 Energy Lost per Cycle

tan   D  
Q Energy Stored per Cycle

Dissipation
D Factor Q Quality Factor
 Relaxation Constant t
Water at 20o C
100
•t = Time required for
1/e of an aligned  r'
system to return to
equilibrium or random
state, in seconds. 10

 r" most energy is lost at 1/t

1 1
 
c 2f c 1
1 10 100 f, GHz

s  
Debye equation :  ( )    
1  j
Electromagnetic Field Interaction

STORAGE
Electric Magnetic
Fields Fields
LOSS

MUT
Permittivity Permeability
' " ' "
r  r  j r r  r  j r
STORAGE

LOSS
Ancient times

1837 Faraday studied the insulation

Material, which he called the dielectric

Middle of 1860s Maxwell’s unified theory

of electromagnetic phenomena

=n 2
9
e = n 2

n = c/v
Speed of light in material
Propagation of electromagnetic waves in the atmosphere

1
Speed of light in a vacuum: c
 0 0

Speed of light in a material:

Refractive index:
 Dielectric Materials

 Dielectric materials are also called as

insulators.
Ex: Mica, glass, plastic, water & polar molecules…

 the forbidden energy band gap (e.g.)

for dielectric materials is more than 3eV.

 Dielectrics are non-metallic materials

of high specific resistance and negative
temperature coefficient of resistance
 Basic Definitions in Dielectrics
Electric Field
The region around the charge within which its effect is
felt or experienced is known as electric field (E).
The electric field is assumed to consist of imaginary electric
lines of force. These lines of force originate from the
positive charges and terminate to the negative charges .

Electric field strength at any point is defined as the

force experienced by a unit positive charge placed at
that point. It is denoted by ‘E’. E=F/Q
Q - magnitude of the charge in coulombs

. Its unit is Newton / Coulomb or Volt / metre.

Electric flux
It is defined as the total number of
electric lines of force passing through a
given area in the electric field. (Emanated
from the positive charge). Unit: Coulomb

Electric flux density or electric

displacement vector (D)
It is defined as the number of
electric lines of force passing normally
through an unit area of cross section in
the field.
Its unit is Coulomb / m2
 Permittivity
Permittivity is defined as the ratio of electric
displacement vector (D) in a dielectric medium to the
applied electric field strength (E).

D coul m 2
  E
Its unit is Farad /meter

The permittivity indicates the degree to which the

medium can resist the flow of electric charge and is
always greater than unity.


Dielectric Constant r 
0
 Electric dipole moment
The difference rp - rn is equal to the vector
distance between the centers of gravity,
represented by a vector a pointing from the
negative to the positive center.
+Q
m  (rp  rn )Q
rp a
- Q m  aQ
rn
Therefore the electric moment of a system of
charges with zero net charge is generally called the
electric dipole moment of the system.
16
Many natural molecules are examples of
systems with a finite electric dipole moment
(permanent dipole moment), since in most
types of molecules the centers of gravity of
the positive and negative charge distributions
do not coincide.

The molecules that have

such kind of permanent
dipole molecules are called
polar molecules.

17
Apart from these permanent or intrinsic dipole
moments, a temporary induced dipole moment arises
when a particle is brought into external electric field

d
_ _
+ _ + +

18
 Potentials and fields due to electric charges.

According to Coulomb's experimental inverse square law, the

force between two charges e and e' with distance r is given
by:
'
ee r
F  2
r r
The field strength due to an electric charge at a distance r
is then given by:

e r
E 2
r r 19
Molecular View of Dielectrics

Polar Dielectrics :
Dielectrics with permanent
electric dipole moments
Example: Water
Molecular View of Dielectrics

Non-Polar Dielectrics:
Dielectrics with induced
electric dipole moments
Example: CH4
 Dielectrics in capacitors

When placed in a charged capacitor, the

dielectric reduces the potential difference
between the two plates

HOW???
 Polarization in dielectrics

• Capacitor – An electronic device, constructed from

alternating layers of a dielectric and a conductor, that
is capable of storing a charge. These can be single layer
or multi-layer devices.

• Permittivity - The ability of a material to polarize and

store a charge within it.

• Linear dielectrics - Materials in which the dielectric

polarization is linearly related to the electric field; the
dielectric constant is not dependent on the electric
field.

• Dielectric strength - The maximum electric field that

can be maintained between two conductor plates without
causing a breakdown.
 Dielectric Materials
Dipole orientation along electric field in the capacitor causes charge redistribution.
Surface nearest to the positive capacitor plate is negatively charged and vice
versa.

net negative charge

Q0 - Q’
at the surface, -Q’
+ + + + + + + +
- - - - - - - -
+ + + + + + + +
P - - - - - - - - region of no
+ + + + + + + +
- - - - - - - -
net charge
+ + + + + + + +
- - - - - - - - -
-Q0 + Q’ net positive charge at
the surface, Q’ = PA

Dipole formation/alignment in electric field is called polarization 

P = Q’/A

24
 Dielectric in Capacitor

Potential difference decreases because

dielectric polarization decreases Electric
Field.
 Capacitance +++++

Voltage V applied to parallel conducting plates

 plates charged by +Q, –Q ----- -
electric field E develops between plates

Charge can remain even after voltage is removed.

Ability to store charge  capacitance

C = Q / V [Farads]
C depends on geometry of plates and material between plates
C = r o A / L =  A / L

A is area of plates, L is distance between plates,  is permittivity of

dielectric medium, o is permittivity of a vacuum (8.85x10-12 F/m),
and  r is relative permittivity (dielectric constant) of material,
r =  / o = C / Cvac 26
 Q = C V
where C = e A / d

Recall that we used Gauss's Law

to calculate the electric field (E)
between the plates of a charged
capacitor:
E = s / e

Vab = E d, so E = Vab /d
A charged parallel
plate capacitor.
 Capacitors can store charge and ENERGY

DU = q DV and the potential V increases as the

charge is placed on the plates (V = Q / C).
Since the V changes as the Q is increased, we
have to integrate over all the little charges
“dq” being added to a plate: DU = q DV leads to

U = ò V dq = ò q/C dq = 1/C òoQ q dq = Q2 / 2C.

And using Q = C V, we get

 ELECTRIC FIELD ENERGY
Here's another way to think of the energy
stored in a charged capacitor: If we consider
the space between the plates to contain the
energy (equal to 1/2 C V2) we can calculate an
energy DENSITY (Joules per volume).
The volume between the plates is area x plate
separation (A d). Then the energy density u is
u = 1/2 C V2 / A d = e E2 / 2
Substituting C = e A / d and V = E d
u = 1/2 (e A/d) (Ed)2 /Ad = e E2/2
 A dielectric is added between the plates of a
charged capacitor (battery not connected):
Q = Qo, therefore Q = C V and Qo = Co Vo
Co Vo = C V,
and if Vo decreases to V, Co must increase to
C to keep equation balanced, and
V = Vo Co/C
Definition of DIELECTRIC CONSTANT:

K = C / Co = ratio of the capacitances

V = Vo / K
C 2012 J. F. Becker
 Energy density: u = e o E2 / 2
This is an important result because it tells us
that empty space contains energy if there is
an electric field (E) in the "empty" space.

If we can get an electric field to travel

(or propagate) we can send or transmit
energy and information through
empty space!!!
 DIELECTRIC
CONSTANT:
K = C / Co
= ratio of the
capacitances

V = Vo / K

Effect of a dielectric between the plates of a

parallel plate capacitor.
Note – the charge is constant !
The charges induced on the surface of the
dielectric (insulator) reduce the electric field.
 “Polarization” of a
dielectric in an
electric field E gives
rise to thin layers of
bound charges on
the dielectric’s
surfaces, creating
surface charge
densities
+si and –si.
 Dielectric Constant

Dielectric weakens original field by a factor

E0
E

Dielectric Constant

Dielectric constants
Vacuum 1.0
Paper 3.7
Pyrex Glass 5.6
Water 80
 Dielectric in a Capacitor

Q0 = constant after battery is disconnected

Upon inserting a dielectric, free charge on plates

does not change, potential decreases, capacitance
increases
V0 Q Q0 Q0
V  C      C0
 V V0 /  V0
 Dielectric in a Capacitor
V0 = constant when battery remains connected

Q  CV   C0V0
Upon inserting a dielectric free charge on plates
increases
Q   Q0
Polarization vector:
The dipole moment per unit volume of the
dielectric material is called polarization vector.

q x i i
P i 1

V
Electric displacement (D), also known as electric flux
density, is the charge per unit area that would be
displaced across a layer of conductor placed across
an electric field.

If we consider a parallel-plate capacitor before
introducing a dielectric into the space between the
plates, the electric field strength is:

  E = σ/ε0 where ±σ are the surface

densities of free charges on the plates and ε0 is the 
permittivity of free space.
 Introducing the dielectric causes the field to
decrease to the value
 
     E = (σ - σP)/ε0       (1)
 

reflecting the fact that σP coulombs/m2 of the free

charges on the plates are now neutralized by the
polarization charges on the surface of the dielectric.
Rewriting equation (1), we have
 
     σ = ε0E + σP = ε0E + P       (2)
 
 σ = ε0E + σP = ε0E + P 

The left-hand side of this equation, and consequently

the right-hand side as well, depends only on the
density of free charges on the capacitor plates. The
right-hand side is defined as the electric
displacement, D. Thus
 
     D = ε0E + P
 
or, in vector form,
 
     D = ε0E + P       (3)
 
An alternative expression to equation (1) for the field
intensity between the plates of the dielectric-filled
capacitor is given by the equation
 
     E = σ/ε
 
Recognizing from equation (2) and (3) that D = σ, we
see that
 
     D = εE
Thus, the factor of proportionality relating electric
displacement and electric field strength is simply
the permitivity of the medium.
 
The preceding relationships apply only to isotropic
 dielectrics. In such materials D, E, and P all have
the same direction, and the value of ε is usually
independent of the strength of the field. For
anisotropic dielectrics, such as quartz, where the
electrical properties depend on direction, D, E,
and P are rarely parallel.
 
Electric flux Density (D):Surface charge density
(also called dielectric displacement) is D = Q/A
Electric flux density is defined as charge per unit area and it has
same units of dielectric polarization.
Electric flux density D at a point in a free space or air in terms of
Electric field strength is
D0   0 E - -  (1)
At the same point in a medium is given by

D  E - -  (2)
As the polarization measures the additional flux density arising
from the presence of material as compared to free space

i.e, D  D 0  P   0 E  P - -  (3)
 Using equations 2 & 3 we get

E   0 E  P
( -  0 ) E  P
(or) ( r . 0 -  0 ) E  P
( r  1) 0 .E  P
 Electric susceptibility:
The polarization vector P is proportional to the
total electric flux density in the direction of
electric field.
P   0 e E
P
e 
0E
The electric susceptibility χe of a
 0 ( r  1) E
dielectric material is a measure of how 
easily it polarizes in response to an 0E
electric field. This, in turn, determines e   r 1
the electric permittivity of the material
and thus influences many other
phenomena in that medium, from the
capacitance of capacitors to the 
Exercise 1-1:
EX1-Show that C0 for a plan plate capacitor without a
dielectric between its plates Is given by C0 = oA/d where A Is
the surface of a plate and d the distance between the two
plates.

Q V
Do = , E= , Do = o E
A d
Q  o EA  o A
Co    ,
V Ed d
Exercise 1-2 :
Show that Cm = C0 and P = Dm  Do = (  1) oE for the
same capacitor after inserting a dielectric with a dielectric
constant 

Q
Dm =  o E =  E D m = D o  ,
A

Q  o EA  o A
Cm =    C o ,
V Ed d
P = Dm  Do =  o E oE
= (  1) o E
Gauss’s Law; Plane-plate capacitor

note that symbolizes the electric field

49
Plane-plate capacitor with dielectric
polarizable units:

for the solid

• For any macroscopic Gaussian surface inside the dielectric, the

incoming and outgoing electric field is identical (because the total
average charge is 0).
• The only place where something macroscopically relevant happens
are the surfaces of the dielectric.
50
Plane-plate capacitor with dielectric

capacitance increase by a
factor of ε

so the E-field decreases

by a factor of ε
Various polarization processes:
When the specimen is placed inside a
d.c. electric field, polarization is due to
four types of processes….
1. Electronic polarization
2. Ionic polarization
3. Orientation polarization
4. Space charge polarization
Medium in an external electric field

Dipole moments can have an induced or a

permanent character

Permanent dipole moments, µ

Induced polarization, P∞
 Dielectric Materials
Surface charge density (also called dielectric displacement) is
D = Q/A

Mechanisms: dipole formation/orientation

 electronic (induced) polarization: Electric field displaces
negative electron “clouds” with respect to positive nucleus.
 Ionic materials (induced) polarization: Applied electric
field displaces cations and anions in opposite directions
 molecular (orientation) polarization: Some materials
possess permanent electric dipoles (e.g. H2O). In absence of
electric field, dipoles are randomly oriented. Applying
electric field aligns these dipoles, causing net (large) dipole
moment.
Ptotal = Pe + Pi + Po 54
 (a) high-frequency dipolar or
orientation (present in ferroelectrics),
(b) low-frequency dipolar (present
in linear dielectrics and glasses),
(c) interfacial-space charge at
electrodes, and
(d ) interfacial-space charge at
heterogeneities such as grain
boundaries
Mechanisms of Polarization

electronic polarization

ionic polarization

molecular (orientation) polarization 56

 Space-Charge Polarization

The space-charge polarization occurs due to the

diffusion of ions, along the field direction, thereby
giving rise to redistribution of charges in the
dielectrics

(a) Without field (b) With field

 Deformation polarization

a. Electron polarization - the displacement of nuclear and

electrons in the atom under the influence of external
electric field. As electrons are very light they have a
rapid response to the field changes; they may even
follow the field at optical frequencies.

b. Atomic polarization - the displacement of atoms or

atom groups in the molecule under the influence of
external electric field.

62
Orientation polarization:

The electric field tends to direct the permanent

dipoles.

Electric field
+e

-e
63
 Ionic Polarization
In ionic lattice, the positive ions are displaced in the
direction of an applied field while the negative ions
are displaced in the opposite direction, giving a
resultant (apparent) dipole moment to the whole body.
- + - -
- +
+ + -
- +
- - - -
+ + +
+ + -
- +
- -
+ -
- +
+ + +

Electric field

64
Frequency dependence of various polarization mechanisms.
The electronic, ionic, and orientation polarization
mechanisms are indicated
r Comparison

 Relaxation Frequency, fr,

progression
• Fastest → Electronic
• Medium → Ionic
• Slowest → Orientation
A dielectric permittivity spectrum over a wide range of frequencies. The
real and imaginary parts of permittivity are shown, and various processes
are depicted: ionic and dipolar relaxation, and atomic and electronic
resonances at higher energies. 
  Frequency Dependence

• AC electric signals are

often applied at high
frequencies to capacitive
Materials
• Since dipole alignment must
have some finite relaxation
time, r, expect some
dielectric frequency
dependence At frequencies, fr, that
exceed 1/r dipoles
cannot keep up with the
applied field; reducing
the dielectric effect
Electric Polarization
The process of producing electric dipoles by an
electric field is called polarization in dielectrics.

Polarizability:

The induced dipole moment per unit electric field is

called Polarizability.

The induced dipole moment is proportional to the

intensity of the electric field.
E
  E
  polarizabi lity constant
 Contributions to Polarizability

α = αe + αi + αd + αs

1. Electronic Polarizability (αe) Polarizability (α)

Polarization of localized electrons increases
2. Ionic Polarizability (αi)
Response Time
Displacement of ions
Increases
3. Dipolar Polarizability (αd) (slower response)
Reorientation of polar molecules
4. Space Charge Polarizability (αs)
Long range charge migration
Audiofrequencies (~ 103 Hz)
α = αe+αi+αd+αs
Radiofrequencies (~ 106 Hz) (αs → 0)
α = αe+αi+αd

Microwave frequencies (~ 109 Hz) (αs, αd → 0)

α = αe+αi

Visible/UV frequencies (~ 1012 Hz) (αs, αd, αi → 0)

α = αe
Internal field or local field

Local field or internal field in a

dielectric is the space and time average
of the electric field intensity acting on a
particular molecule in the dielectric
material.
Exercise 1-3: Evaluation of internal field

Consider a dielectric be placed between the

plates of a parallel plate capacitor and let
there be an imaginary spherical cavity around
the atom A inside the dielectric. Find the
internal field.

The internal field at the atom site ‘A’

can be made up of four components E1
,E2, E3 & E4.
 + + + + + + + + + + +
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ + +
+ +
+ + Dielectric
+ + material
_ A _ E2
_ _
_ _
E4
Spherical _
E1 + + + + + + +
_
Cavity

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Field E1:
E1 is the field intensity at A due to the charge
density on the plates
inside the cavity
D
E1 
0
D  0E  P
0E  P
E1 
0
P
E1  E  ..........(1)
0
Field E2:
E2 is the field intensity at A due to the charge
density induced on the two sides of the dielectric.

P
E2  ...........(2)
0

Field E3:
E3 is the field intensity at A due to the atoms
contained in the cavity, we are assuming a cubic
structure, so E3 = 0.
 + + +
+
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ A +
_  r _
_
d
_
r R
E _ _
p
_ q
dA _ _ _
_ _
Field E4:
1.This is due to polarized charges on the surface of
the spherical cavity.

dA  2 . pq.qR
dA  2 .r sin  .rd
2
dA  2 .r sin d
Where dA is Surface area between θ & θ+dθ…
2.The total charge present on the surface
area dA is…
dq = ( normal component of polarization ) X (
surface area )

dq  p cos   dA
2
dq  2r p cos  . sin  .d
3.The field due to this charge at A, denoted by dE4 is given b

dq 1
dE4 
4 0 r 2

1 dq cos 
The field in θ = 0 direction dE4  2
4 0 r

1 2
dE4  2
( 2r p cos  . sin  .d ) cos 
4 0 r
P 2
dE4  cos  . sin  .d
2 0
 
E4   dE
0
4

4.Thus the 
total field E4 P
due to the
 
0
2 0
cos 2  . sin  .d

charges on the P


  . sin  .d
2
surface of the  cos
2 0
entire cavity is 0

let ..x  cos   dx   sin d

1
P
 .dx
2
 x
2 0 1

 P x 3 1  P 11
 ( )1  ( )
2 0 3 2 0 3
P
E4 
3 0
The internal field or Lorentz field can be
written as

Ei  E1  E2  E3  E4
p p p
Ei  ( E  )   0 
o o 3 o
p
Ei  E 
3 o
 Classius – Mosotti relation:
Consider a dielectric material having cubic structure ,
and assume ionic Polarizability & Orientational
polarizability are zero..
P  N e Ei
P
P  N e ( E  )
3 0
i  0  0 P
P  N e E  N e
3 0
polarizati on..P  N
P
P  N e Ei ......where.,    e Ei P  N e  N e E
3 0
P N e
where., Ei  E  P (1  )  N e E
3 0 3 0
N e E
P ...................(1)
N e
(1  )
3 0
We known that the polarizati on vector
P   0 E ( r  1)............(2)
from eq n s (1) & ( 2)
N e E
  0 E ( r  1)
N e
(1  )
3 0
N e N e E
1 
3 0  0 E ( r  1)
N e N e E
1 
3 0  0 E ( r  1)
N e N e
1 
3 0  0 ( r  1)
N e 3
1 (1  )
3 0  r 1
N e 1

3 0 3
(1  )
 r 1
N e  1
 r ......  Classius Mosotti relation
3 0 r  2
 Electronic Polarization

dipole moment is proportional to the magnitude of

field strength and is given by

 e E
or
e   e E

where ‘αe’ is called electronic Polarizability constant

 E

+Ze x

R R

No field fig(1) In the presence of field fig (2)

fig(2) represents displacement of nucleus and electron

cloud and we assume that the –ve charge in the cloud
uniformly distributed over a sphere of radius R and
the spherical shape does not change for convenience.
Exercises 1-4
Show that the electronic Polarisability is
directly proportional to cube of the radius of the
atom.
 Let σ be the charge density of the sphere

 Ze

4 3
R
3
- Ze represents the total charge in the sphere.

Thus the - ve charge in the sphere of radius ' x' is

4
q e   .  .x 3
3
 ze 4
 4
.R

3 3
. . x 3

3

 ze 3
 3 x - - - - - (1)
R

1 qe .q p 1   ze.x 3   z 2e 2 x
Now Fc  . 2  
2  3
ze   3
- - - - - (2)
4 0 x 4 0 x  R  4 0 R
Force experienced by displaced nucleus in EF of Strength
E is FL = Eq = ZeE -----(3)

FL  Fc
 z 2e 2 x
 ZeE - - - - - (4)
4 0 R 3
 zex
3
E
4 0 R
 zex  zex dipole moment
3
 E
4 0 R e e

3
 e  4 0 R
Hence electronic Polarisability is directly proportional to cube of
the radius of the atom.
 Ionic polarization

• The ionic polarization occurs, when atoms form

molecules and it is mainly due to a relative
displacement of the atomic components of the
molecule in the presence of an electric field.

• When a EF is applied to the molecule, the

positive ions displace by X1 to the negative side
of EF the and negative ions displace by X2 to the
positive side of EF.

• The resultant dipole moment is µ = q ( X1 + X2)..

 + _
Electric field
+ _
+ _
cation anion
+ _

x1 x2
+
_
+ _
+ _
+ _

EX2- Find an expression for the ionic polarisabilty

Restoring force constant depend upon the mass of the ion
and natural frequency and is given by

F  eE  m.w02 x
or
eE
x
m.w02
eE 1 1
 x1  x2  2 m  M 
w0
Where ‘M’ mass of anion and ‘m’ is mass of cat
ion

2
e E 1 1
 ionic  e( x1  x2 )  2 m  M 
w0
2
ionic e 1 1
or  ionic   2 m  M 
E w0

This polarization occurs at frequency 1013 Hz (IR). It is a

slower process compared to electronic polarization. It is
independent of temperature.
 Orientational Polarization
It is also called dipolar or molecular polarization. The
molecules such as H2 , N2,O2,Cl2 ,CH4,CCl4 etc., does not
carry any dipole because centre of positive charge and
centre of negative charge coincides. On the other hand
molecules like CH3Cl, H2O,HCl, ethyl acetate (polar
molecules) carries dipoles even in the absence of electric
field.

However, the net dipole moment is negligibly small since all

the molecular dipoles are oriented randomly when there is
no EF. In the presence of the electric field these all
dipoles orient themselves in the direction of field as a
result the net dipole moment becomes enormous.
• It occurs at a frequency 106 Hz to 1010Hz.
• It is slow process compare to ionic
polarization.
• It greatly depends on temperature.
 Orientational polarization and
total polarization.
Do a web search to find in detail an expression for
the orientational polarization

 2
N . or ie.E
Po  N . or ie   N . o .E
3kT
2
 or ie
o 
3kT

   elec   ionic   or i  4 o R 3 

e2
w02
 1
M
 1
m


2
 or
3kT
i

This is called Langevin – Debye equation for total

Polarisability in dielectrics.
 Dielectric spectroscopy

 (sometimes called impedance spectroscopy),

and also known as electrochemical impedance
spectroscopy (EIS), measures
the dielectric properties of a medium as a
function of frequency. It is based on the
interaction of an external field with the
electric dipole moment of the sample, often
expressed by permittivity.
The spectrum of electro-magnetic waves

UV/VIS IR Broadband Dielectric

Spectroscopy (BDS)
 MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS IN THE TIME DOMAIN

• In linear systems the time-dependent response to a step

function field and the frequency-dependent response to a
sinusoidal electric field are related through Fourier
transforms.
• For this reason, from a mathematical point of view, there is
no essential difference between these two types of
measurement.
• Over a long period of time the equipment for measurements
in the time domain has been far less developed than that
used in the frequency domain.
• As a result, available experimental data in the time domain
are much less abundant than those in the frequency domain.
 Time domain spectroscopy
• To cover the lowest Vo
frequency range (from 10-4
to 101 Hz), time domain
spectrometers have
recently been developed.
• In these devices, a voltage
step Vo is applied to the I(t)
sample placed between the
plates of a plane parallel
capacitor, and the current
I(t) is recorded.
Dielectric dispersion in time domain
Dielectric dispersion in frequency domain
Electron
hopping is
practically
instantaneous.
Ionic
diffusion is
time-limited
by the
viscosity of
the medium.

Dipolar alignment is also subject to a time dependency and

once the dipoles are all aligned then there is no further
current flow. For the dipoles there will be a relaxation of
orientation leading to a discharge current similar to that
measured when the material was polarised.
 Basic relations between the complex dielectric
function e* and the complex conductivity s*
The linear interaction of electromagnetic fields with matter is described by Maxwell‘s equations

D
curl H  j
t
 
D   0 E j  E (Ohm‘s law)

 
      i          i 

(Current-density and the time derivative of D are equivalent)

   i 0 
 Brief summary concerning the principle of
Broadband Dielectric Spectroscopy (BDS):

1. BDS covers a huge spectral range from THz to mHz

and below.

2. The dielectric funcion and the conductivity are comlex

because the exitation due to the external field and
the response of the system under study are not in
phase with each other.

3. The real part of the complex dielectric function has

the character of a memory function because different
dielectric relaxation proccesses add up with decreasing
frequency
 Debye Equations
Dipole Relaxation

The easiest way to look at relaxation phenomena is to

consider what happens if the driving force - the electrical
field in our case - is suddenly switched off, after it has been
constant for a sufficiently long time so that an equilibrium
distribution of dipoles could be obtained. We expect then
that the dipoles will randomize, i.e. their dipole moment or
their polarization will go to zero. However, that cannot
happen instantaneously
we expect that P decays
starting at the time of the
switch-off according to
where ε∞ is the permittivity at the high
frequency limit, εs permittivity at static
electric field
 Dielectric spectroscopy * s  
Debye relaxation     
(1  i )
E
electric field E

0 t

polarization P

 s  
 ( )    
1    
2

complex dielectric function

s  
 ( )  
1    
2
 Debye dielectric relaxation

Dielectric relaxation data from materials composed of simple

molecules fit the Debye model. Debye equation leads to the
classical expression for the frequency dependent
susceptibility

- However, important exceptions appear in complex materials

like polymeric systems, glasses and biomolecules.
Non-Debye dielectric relaxations
Havriliak–Negami relaxation
An empirical modification of the Debye relaxation model,
accounting for the asymmetry and broadness of the
dielectric dispersion curve. First used to describe the
dielectric relaxation of some polymers, by adding two
exponents to the Debye relation:

The exponents α and β

describe the asymmetry
and broadness of the
corresponding spectra.
Other: Cole-Cole
relaxation β=1,
Cole-Davidson, etc.
 Dielectric Loss
When the relaxation time is much faster than the
frequency of the applied electric field, polarization
occurs instantaneously.

When the relaxation time is much slower than the

frequency of the applied electric field, no
polarization (of that type) occurs.

When the relaxation time and the frequency of the

applied field are similar, a phase lag occurs and
energy is absorbed. This is called dielectric loss
 Dielectric Loss
• For a lossy (imperfect) dielectric the
dielectric constant can be represented by a
complex relative dielectric constant:

• The imaginary part of this complex dielectric

constant ε” at a frequency ω is equivalent to a
frequency-dependent conductivity σ(ω) given
by:
 Dielectric Loss
• ε" is also known as the loss factor.
• The small difference in phase from ideal
behavior is defined by an angle δ, defined
through the equation

• tan δ is known as the loss tangent or

dissipation factor.
• A quality factor, Q, for the dielectric is given
by the reciprocal of tan δ.
Dielectric Loss

Equivalent circuit diagrams: (a) capacitive

cell, (b) charging and loss current, (c) loss
tangent for a typical dielectric
 Dielectric Loss
• From Q =  oAV/d = CV

• If V being sinusoidal, total charge Q may be written

as
i t
Q  C Vo e
• Current flow on discharge of the capacitive cell in
time t:
dQ
I  iCV
dt
• For a real dielectric the current I has vector
components IC and IR:
I = IC + IR
 Dielectric Loss

• From magnitude of these currents, also we can define

a dissipation factor, tan , as
IR
tan  
IC
• Quality factor Q is:

1 average energy stored

Q 
tan  energy dissipated per cycle
 Exercise 1-5

• Impedance of a resistance = R
• Impedance of a capacitance = 1/iωC
• Find the mean power, P, dissipated over a cycle in a
lossy capacitor with plates of area A separated by a
distance d (Re: Real part)
 Dielectric losses

IC: 90° in
advance of U

Angular frequency
=2f = 2/T Il: in phase with U

Ideal capacitor: 90°

phase difference
between I and U, no Real capacitor: <90° phase difference
dissipation between I and U. Ic: charging current
(capacitative component). Il: loss
current, dissipative comp., power loss
 voltage-current relationship in a capacitor

The applied
voltage
produces a
polarisation
within the
sample and
causes a small
current to flow
which leads
the electric
field by a
phase
difference (δ)
 '' '
r r
Exercise 1-6: show that tan  " loss factor "
The behaviour of ac circuits can be conveniently analysed using complex quantities

exp(i )  cos   i sin  i  1

Real part 90° in advance
Imaginary part Complex sinusoidal voltage
Im

 U  U 0 expit  U  iU 0 expit   iU

Re
Vacuum capacitor I  Q  U C0  iCoU

Capacitor with a lossy dielectric U = U0/εr

Ic
 r*   r'  i r''
I  i r' C0U   r''C0U
I C  i  0 r' E I l   0 r'' E   ac E
 r''
tan   '
r
Il
By analogy with
Ohm’s law:
 r''   r' tan  " loss factor " I =U/R or J =  E
Power dissipated per unit time P  1 U I tan   1 U 2C tan 
W c
Since P = ½(VIR) and 2 0 2 0
dQ
Ic   CU 0
dt
PW 1 2
Dissipated power density  E 0  0 r tan 
(Since V=Ad, C=εA/d and U=Ed) V 2

tan: “dissipation factor” or “loss tangent”

rtan: “loss factor”

PW 1 2 PW
 E 0  ac  E 2
V 2 By analogy with dc current V

Dielectric or ac conductivity  ac   0 r tan 