RHEOLOGY

Dr. Sana Hanif

Assistant Professor
The University of Lahore
Lecture 4
THIXOTROPY:

• The Non-Newtonian system such as plastic, pseudo plastic and

dilatant system at a given temperature show the time dependent
changes in the viscosity and then various shearing stresses. This
behaviour is called as thixotropy.
• Slow and isothermal recovery of the materials, when shearing stress
is removed at certain temperature.
Rheopexy:

Rheopexy is the rare property of some non-Newtonian fluids to show a

time-dependent increase in viscosity (time-dependent viscosity); the
longer the fluid undergoes shearing force, the higher its viscosity.
Rheopectic fluids, such as some lubricants, thicken or solidify when
shaken.
𝑆𝑜𝑙 ====== 𝑔𝑒𝑙 ====== 𝑠𝑜𝑙
DETERMINATION OF VISCOSITY:

• The various viscometers used for determining the viscosity of

different systems :
Standard Laboratory Viscometers for Liquids:

1. U-TUBE VISCOMETERS:
(Ostwald viscometer or Capillary viscometer)
• Measure viscosity of substances with a known density
• Named after the German scientist Wilhelm Ostwald (1853 – 1932)
• Method consists of measuring the time for known volume of liquid
(mark between A and B) to flow through the capillary under influence
of gravity.
• Instrument must be calibrated with materials of known viscosity such
as pure (deionized) water.
Ostwald viscometer or Capillary viscometer
Others
1. Falling Sphere Viscometer
2. Falling Piston Viscometer
3. Oscillating Piston Viscometer
4. Vibrational Viscometers
5. QUARTZ VISCOMETER
6. Rotational Viscometers
7. Bubble Viscometer
 PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROCESSES
Outline:

a. Precipitation: Process of precipitation and its applications in Pharmacy.

b. Crystallization: Types of crystals, Mechanism and methods of crystallization and its applications in Pharmacy.

c. Distillation: Simple, fractional, steam distillation, vacuum distillation, destructive distillation and their
applications in Pharmacy.

d. Miscellaneous Processes: Efflorescence, deliquescence, lyophillization, elutrition, exiccation, ignition,

sublimation, fusion, calcination, adsorption, decantation, evaporation, vaporization, centrifugation,
dessication, levigation and trituration.
 1. PRECIPITATION

Definition:

• ‘‘Precipitation is the process of separating the solid particles from the solution by physical and or chemical
changes”.
• The formation of an insoluble component from solution either by interaction of two salts (i.e. by chemical
changes) or by temperature changes ((i.e. physical change) effecting stability is called precipitation. The solid
formed in this process is called precipitate.

CRYSTALLIZATION AND PRECIPITATION:

• Crystallization and precipitation are two similar concepts, which are used as separation techniques.
• In both the methods, the end product is a solid and its nature can be controlled by manipulating different
variables throughout the process.
• Precipitation is a unit process in which a settleable and / or filterable solid is formed by the chemical joining of
two or more inorganic dissolved chemical species, the objective of which is to remove one of the chemical
species.
TERMS:

• The separated solid particles are called precipitate, while the remaining clear liquid above the precipitates
are called as ''supernatant”.
• The separated solid is termed a precipitate; the cause of precipitation is the precipitant; and the liquid that
remains in the vessel above the precipitate is called the supernatant liquid.
Methods of Precipitations:

There are three different method of Precipitation as follows:

• Organic solvent method

• pH change method
• Double decomposition method

1. ORGANIC SOLVENT METHOD:

• In this method the water insoluble substances or (drugs) are dissolved in water miscible organic solvents.
• Now the dissolved drug can be easily precipitated by adding water (distilled water) into the mixture.
• The general organic solvents are Ethanol, Methanol, Glycol, Propylene glycol, polyethylene glycol.
• When (prednisolone) suspension is dissolved in methanol, it is very easily precipitated by adding distilled
water.
• Only physical changes occur in this process.
Summary:

• Take drug
• Dissolve in organic solvent
• Add water
• Drug separate as precipitate

2. pH CHANGE METHOD:

• This method is applicable only to those substances (drugs) in which solubility are dependent upon
pH.

• (Esterdiol suspension) is prepared by changing the pH of the aqueous solution. Esterdiol drug is
readily soluble in alkaline media (NaOH and KOH) solution. However, this drug is insoluble in acidic
media. So when this drug is added to an acidic media (HCI, acetic acid or citric acid) with proper
agitation. Esterdiol is easily precipitated out in a form of fine particles.

• Insulin solution can also be prepared by pH change method. The PH change method is again a
physical change. (Not a chemical change)
3. DOUBLE DECOMPOSITION METHOD:

• Precipitations are formed in this method only by simple chemistry.

• MgCO3 and CaCO3 are the common substances prepared by this method

CaCl2 + Na2CO3 → CaCO3 + 2NaCl

MgCl2 + Na2CO3 → MgCO3 + 2NaCl

• High concentration solution produce coarse precipitates, from which impurities can be removed by washing, but
precipitates formed by dilute solution are much finer and it is much difficult to remove impurities from them. In
many case the order of mixing solutions can also effect the PPT formation, e.g.
• Similarly, (white lotion) is formed by precipitation
• i.e. by mixing aqueous solution of ZnSO4 and Sulphurated Potash to form insoluble PPT, which finally divided
into Zinc sulphide plus free sulphur and various polysulphides e.g.

ZnSO4 + sulphurated potash → ZnS + S

• Many other organic and inorganic compounds are formed by precipitation methods e.g. Mg stearate is formed
by treating diluted solution of sodium stearate and MgSO4. Precipitates of Mg stearate are formed and are
formed and are washed with water

Sodium stearate + MgSO4 → Mg sterate