Tropical Meteorology and Climatology

Asaminew Teshome (PhD)

Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia
Welcome Students
 Self Introduction
• Name: Asaminew Teshome
Academic background
 BSc: Meteorology Science from
Arbaminch University
 MSc: Climate/Meteorology
Science from Mekelle University
 PhD: Meteorology Science from
NUIST
 Research Interest: Weather and
climate prediction/modelling and
their dynamical drivers
Publications
1.  doi: 10.11648/j.sd.20150306.14
2. DOI: 10.4172/2157-7617.1000390
3. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/5235429
4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-021-05855-0
5. https://www.weatherimpact.com/
6. DOI: 10.1175/JCLI-D-19-0536.1
7. DOI: 10.1016/j.hydroa.2020.100061
8. DOI:10.1175/JCLI-D-20-0763.1
9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-021-05855-0
10. https://doi.org/10.1175/2021BAMSStateoftheClimate_Chapter7.1
11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jastp.2021.105751
12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cliser.2021.100272
13. https://doi.org/10.4236/acs.2022.121005
14. https://doi.org/10.4236/acs.2022.122022
Research-gate
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Asaminew-Teshome
 Course content
Chapter One: General Introduction

Chapter Two: Tropical weather and climate

Chapter Three: Atmospheric Circulation
Chapter Four: Tropical Cyclone

Chapter Five: Topical climate variability/drivers

At the end of this class, students will be able to:
• Distinguish weather and climate

• Describe the components of the climate system

• Distinguish Koppen climate classification

• Explain general circulation patterns

• Large scale atmospheric drivers

• Jet stream, ITCZ, tropical cyclones and hurricanes

• Explain the difference between climate variability and climate change

 Mode of assessment
• Class attendance and active participation 10%
• Quiz 30%
• Term papers 20%
• Mid exam 20%
• Final exam 20%
 Chapter One: General Introduction
Why study climate?
• Determines the type and location of human-managed ecosystems, such as
agricultural farmlands.
• Affects the weathering of rock, the type of soil that forms,
and the rate of soil formation.
• Affects people and society
• Helps to determine the quantity and quality of water available for
human use.
• Determines the severity of droughts, storms, and floods.
• Largely determines the nature and locations of biomes -major terrestrial
ecosystems, defined based on their plant communities.
• Lack of rainfall may lead to dryness
 Cont’d
• Climate patterns play a fundamental role in shaping natural
ecosystems, and the human economies and cultures that depend on
them.
• Less dramatic local changes in temperature, precipitation and soil
moisture could severely impact many things important to human life
and all life around us, including:
 agriculture and food supplies
 human health
 natural ecosystems
 forestry
 water resources and availability
 energy use
 infrastructure and transportation
Biomass depends on climate
 Biomass is a function of climate

Where is Ethiopia?
Chemical Composition of the Atmosphere

• Nitrogen 78%
• Oxygen 21%
• Argon 0.9%
• Carbon Dioxide 0.03%
• Trace substances
• Water Vapor
5 variables influence the atmosphere:
Temperature
Pressure
Humidity
Cloudiness
Winds
Variables influencing the atmosphere…
temperature:

• Measure of heat
• Average kinetic energy of
molecules
• Weather reports give air
temperature at ground level
Variables influencing the atmosphere…
pressure:
• Low
High Pressure
Pressure
• Region where air has stretched
piled up out
• Tends
Warmerto and
rise dryer
and cool,
than vapor
surrounding
condenses
air into clouds

• Pressure=Force/Area
Variables influencing the atmosphere…
humidity:
• “relative humidity” –
the ratio of amount of water vapor in air at current temp
to
max amount vapor air can hold at that temp
Variables influencing the atmosphere…
cloudiness:

• Water droplets
• Ice crystals
• Warm air rises, cools and
condenses
(phase change)
 Brief Description of Cloud Types
1. Cumulonimbus – Large white, gray or dark cloud with large vertical
extent.
2. Cumulus –heaped, fluffy, puffy cauliflower shaped clouds.
3. Stratocumulus – patches of soft layers or rolls of cloud with modest
vertical extend. Often covers the sky completely
4. Nimbostratus – Uniform dense, gray, dark cloud, rain generally falling.
5. Stratus - Uniform dull grayish clouds covering all or a large portion of the
sky
 Brief Description of Cloud Types

6. Altostratus – Uniform dark gray sheet covering all or a large portion of the sky
7. Altocumulus - large white or dark gray patches (Puffs), elongated ripples or
rolls.
8. Cirrostratus - transparent cloud sheet covering the sky like a veil - produces a
halo around the sun or moon.
9. Cirrocumulus - very small cells or ripples or delicate puffs;
10. Cirrus – feathery steaks, detached clouds composed of delicate icy filaments,
have some vertical extent,
• Based on cloud base height, the ten principal cloud types can then be grouped
into four cloud types:

• HIGH CLOUDS (cloud base above 6kms): cirrus, cirrostratus,

cirroscumulus.

• MEDIUM CLOUDS (2km-6km) Composed of water droplets,– altostratus

and altocumulus

• LOW CLOUDS ( below 2km): Composed of water droplets=stratus,

stratocumulus, and nimbostartus

• Clouds with extensive vertical development – cumulus and cumulonimbus.

 Cloud cover Measurement
• Cloud cover refers how much part
of the sky is covered by clouds
expressed in OKTAS (or eighths of
the sky).
• A value of 0 OKTAS refers to clear
Cloud cover
sky, while 8 oktas indicate an
overcast.
Variables influencing the atmosphere
winds:

• Due to differential
heating of the earth’s
surface
• Warm air rises
• Cooler air flows in
 Weather begins with the sun
Weather systems start
because the sun’s energy
heats up some parts of
Earth more than others.
Solar energy heats the
equator more than the
poles.

Earth rotates within its

axis and revolves around
the sun
 Meteorology – the Study of Weather
• The field of atmospheric science which is most well-known and of practical importance to the
general public is meteorology, the study of weather.
• Meteorology is usually concerned only with the lowest region of the atmosphere, the
troposphere.
• Weather is influenced not only by vertical, diurnal, and seasonal variations of atmospheric
density and temperature, and of solar heating, but also by horizontal variations over Earth’s
surface.
• Atmospheric winds and circulation are influenced by Earth’s rotation, and by surface conditions
(i.e. whether land or sea, topography, and surface temperature).
• The advent of weather-monitoring satellites, and of supercomputers, have greatly facilitated the
science and application of meteorology in recent years.
 Weather vs Climate
Weather
• The actual state of the atmosphere in a period of several hours up to a
few days (in a given place)
Climate
• A statistical description in terms of the mean and variability of
relevant quantities over a period ranging from months to thousands or
millions of years.
• The classical period is 30 years, which are most often surface variables
such as temperature, precipitation, and wind.
• Climate in a wider sense is the state, including a statistical description,
of the climate system.
 Some weather factors

Wind. This tool measures wind speed. It is called

an anemometer.

Precipitation. Rain, snow, sleet and hail are all

forms of precipitation.

Temperature. Temperature is how warm or cold it

is outside.

Cloud Cover. There are many types of clouds that

form in different conditions.
 Weather
Temporary behavior of atmosphere (what’s going on at any certain
time)

Small geographic area

Can change rapidly

The study of weather is meteorology
Someone who studies weather is called a meteorologist
 Climate Vs Weather

• Weather –

Day-to-day changes in temperature and rain. Changes tied to weather systems

such as cold and warm fronts.

• Climate –

Pattern of weather for a month or longer. Includes changes in average

weather patterns due to global conditions such as ocean temperature.
 Weather vs Climate
• What is Weather?

• What is Climate?

• Are they the same? 2 minutes for discussion

• How are they related?

• How can they be confused?

Source of weather and climate information
Weather changes every day!
 Available products
• https://www.windy.com/?2022122221,4.711,17.051,3,i:pressure
• https://www.yr.no/en
• https://www.ventusky.com/?p=8.7;36.3;5&l=rain-3h&t=20221123/0000
Characteristics of Weather and Climate
• Temperature
• Wind
• Clouds
• Precipitation
• Humidity
• Storms (cyclones!)
 What Factors Affect Weather & Climate?
Phase
1. The Sun Changes of Water
2. The Water Cycle
Heat Energy Absorbed

3. The Atmosphere Sublimation

4. The OceanMelting Evaporation

Ice Liquid Vapor

Freezing Condensation

Deposition

Heat Energy Released

Land Atmosphere Interactions
 How Does the Sun Affect Weather?
• It warms the atmosphere & oceans
• It creates climate zones
• It keeps the water cycle going
• It affects weather patterns
 The water cycle affects both climate and weather
• The water cycle is powered from solar energy.
• The sun evaporates water from the entire Earth - 86% of the
evaporation on Earth comes from the oceans.
• Evaporation cools the atmosphere and planets. The water cycle
involves the evaporation, condensation and precipitation of water
and all of these events shape the weather on a day to day basis.
Evaporation and precipitation are ways in which water moves
through the water cycle on any given day during a weather event.
• During hot, dry weather can lead to water evaporation causing plants
and soil to dry out and streams and rivers to have lower elevations,
but over the course of a year or several years, a balance occurs in the
water cycle so the amount of water entering the system is equal to
the amount exiting. This balance in the water cycle helps stabilize
the climate.
• Climate is affected by the natural fluctuation of the balance of water
 Parts of the Cycle
• Evaporation—Water going from a liquid to a gas (gains
energy from the sun)
 Cont’d
• Transpiration—evaporation of water from/out of plants. Locate
this on the diagram!

transpiration
 Cont’d
• Condensation—Water going from a gas to a liquid (cools or loses
energy)
• When this happens in the atmosphere, CLOUDS form.
 Cont’d
• Precipitation—when water falls out the atmosphere. Forms when
the water droplets in clouds become too heavy to stay up.
Precipitation

•Liquid water = rain

•Frozen water = snow or sleet or hail

The Water Cycle
 How does the atmosphere affect weather?
• The atmosphere is a mixture of gases that surrounds
the Earth
• Has five different layers; each has different properties
• Air Temperature and Pressure change with altitude
• Weather occurs in the layer closest to Earth
(troposphere)
• What is lapse rate and how it affect temperature?
 Cont’d
• A lapse rate is the rate at which temperature of the atmosphere
decreasing as the altitude increase.

• The lapse rate tell us how much the temperature is decreasing the
higher in the air we get.

• The higher you are in the atmosphere, the colder the temperature will
be.

• Lapse rate=-dT/dA
 Write in the labels!

Exosphere

Thermosphere

Ionosphere

Mesosphere
Ozone layer
Stratosphere
Troposphere
 Cont’d
• Exosphere - the outermost layer of the Earth's atmosphere, where atmospheric
pressure and temperature are low.
• Ionosphere - the atmospheric layer between the mesosphere and the exosphere; it
is part of the thermosphere.
• Mesosphere - the atmospheric layer between the stratosphere and the ionosphere.
• Stratosphere - the atmospheric layer between the troposphere and the
mesosphere. The stratosphere is characterized by a slight temperature increase
with altitude and by the absence of clouds.
• Thermosphere - the layer of the atmosphere located above part of the ionosphere
(starting at the coldest part of the atmosphere) and below outer space; it consists
of the exosphere and part of the ionosphere.
• Troposphere - the lowest layer of the Earth's atmosphere. The weather and clouds
occur in the troposphere.
 Climatology
• Climatology is the study of weather statistics, patterns, and trends
• Climatology, the study of climate, differs from meteorology in that climate is the
long-term pattern of temperature, precipitation, wind patterns, etc. at a particular
location, over periods of a year or more, whereas weather is the current (or very
near-term) state of affairs at the location or region of interest.
• For example, the climate in Antarctica is quite different from that in the Sahara
Desert, or the Amazon river basin.
• Climate can, however, change over long periods of time, and the topic of climate
change is currently of practical importance, because of the known or potential
effects of human activity on local, regional, or even world-wide climates.
 The climate is always changing, always has changed

1,000,000 year time scales

Plate tectonics
100,000 year time scales
Orbital variations and glacial periods
100-10 year time scales
Events like the Little Ice Age and
Medieval Warm Period
10-5 year time scales
El Niño – La Niña cycles
Other short-term cycles due to ocean
circulation
 1,000,000 year Time Scales
500 mya 400 mya

300 mya 200 mya

Ice sheets can only grow when continents are at the poles.
 Seasons on Earth
• Seasons exist because the earth tilts
on its axis towards the sun at
different angles.
• As the sun shines on the earth, it
shines more directly on the northern
hemisphere in June, and more
directly on the southern hemisphere
in December. 
• That's why the seasons are different 
in each hemisphere. 
• In the spring and fall, the sun shines
fairly straight on the equator, giving
both hemispheres equal warming. 
Weather changes as seasons change.
 Characteristics of Climate
Climate is affected by a combination of factors from three different
systems:

• Solar System
• Earth System
• Earth’s Dynamics (how planet earth is changing at a macro scale)

• What is your thought on this concept?

 Solar System
The earth’s solar system (our sun and
the associated planets, etc.) have an
impact on the Earth’s System composed
of five components:
Atmosphere (all air)
Hydrosphere (all water)
Biosphere (all living things)
Geosphere (solid portion of the earth)
Cryosphere (frozen water part of the
earth)
 Earth System (Interaction)
Air Ice
Atmosphere (all air)

Hydrosphere (all water)

Biosphere (all living

things) Water Land

Geosphere (solid portion of

the earth) Life

Cryosphere (frozen water

part of the earth)
Climate System
The Earth's climate system is a compilation of the following
components and their interactions-
 1. The atmosphere
2. The hydrosphere, including the oceans and all other reservoirs of
water in liquid form, which are the main source of moisture for
precipitation and which exchange gases, such as CO2, and particles,
such as salt, with the atmosphere.
3. The geosphere, which affect the flow of atmosphere and oceans
through their morphology (i.e. topography, vegetation cover and
roughness), the hydrological cycle (i.e. their ability to store water) and
their radiative properties as matter (solids, liquids, and gases) blown by
the winds or ejected from earth's interior in volcanic eruptions.
4. The cryosphere, or the ice component of the climate system, whether
on land or at the ocean's surface, that plays a special role in the Earth
radiation balance and in determining the properties of the deep ocean.
5. The biosphere - all forms of life - that through respiration and other
chemical interactions affects the composition and physical properties
air and water. The biosphere is that part of Earth's atmosphere, land,
oceans that supports any living plant, animal, or organism. It is the
place where plants and animals, including humans, live. Large
quantities of carbon dioxide are exchanged between the land-based
biosphere and the atmosphere as plants take in carbon dioxide and give
off oxygen, and animals inhale oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide.
Which diagram is closest to the shape of Earth’s orbit?

A B

Answer is B. It is not round, only slightly elliptical

C
 Earth’s Orbit

The Earth’s orbit is almost EARTH

a perfect circle with slight

variations every 100,000
and 400,000 years.
http://www.morehead.unc.edu/Shows/EMS/seasons.htm
Earth Orbit
How Does the Climate System Work?
How does the climate system work.mp4
 Class Exercise
List two important things you have learned from this Video:

2
 What is Climate Change?
IPCC, 3rd Assessment Report:
Climate change: a statistically significant variation in either the mean state of the climate or in
its variability, persisting for an extended period (typically decades or longer).
Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forcings, or to persistent
anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use .
UNFCCC, Article 1:
“climate change”: “a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human
activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural
climate variability observed over comparable time periods.”
 What is climate variability?
IPCC, 3rd AR:
Climate variability refers to variations in the mean state and other statistics
(such as the occurrence of extremes, etc.) of the climate on all temporal and
spatial scales beyond that of individual weather events. Variability may be due
to natural internal processes within the climate system (internal variability), or
to variations in natural or anthropogenic external forcing (external variability)
What are the Primary Indicators of Climate Change?
 Warming of Climate
Increases in global sea and air temperatures

Widespread melting of snow and ice

Rising global sea level

What other effects?

 Widespread Melting Snow and Ice
• Most mountain glaciers are getting smaller.
• Snow cover is retreating earlier in the spring.
• Sea ice in the Arctic is shrinking in all seasons, most dramatically in
summer.
• Reductions are in the permafrost, seasonally frozen ground and river
and lake ice.
• Important coastal regions of ice sheets on Greenland and West
Antartica, and the glaciers of the Antartic Peninsular, are thinning and
contributing to sea level rise.
 Climate change clue in Africa
1. Impacts on weather
pattern
Flooding and drought
2. Impacts on weather
supply and quality
Melting of mount
Kilimanjaro glaciers
3. Impacts on agricultural
activities and food security
Rainfall below and above
4. Impacts on health
Climate sensitive diseases
5. Impacts on shelter
Destruction of many homes due to flood and drought
6. Impacts on vulnerable populations
 women, children and elders
7. Impacts on national security
Due to scarcity of resources peoples migrate from one plac
other places
8. Impacts on ecosystems
 depletion of forest and others
 Rising global sea level
Two major causes of global sea level rise:

• Thermal expansion of the oceans (water expands as it warms)

• Loss of land-based ice due to increased melting and movement from

land to sea
(glaciers and continental ice caps)
Climate related extremes
Rainfall and temperature trend over Ethiopia
Temperature trend from NAPA
Global Surface Temperature
Which graph best shows the overall change in output of the Sun’s
energy in the last 30 years?

A B

“A” is the correct answer.

C
 Chapter Two: Tropical weather and climate
• Tropics: Defined as the region of surplus radiation
with net upward motion, easterly boundary layer
flow and lower surface pressures associated with
a meridional over turning upper level circulation

• In geographical terminology "the Tropics" refers to

the region of the earth bounded by the Tropic of
Cancer (lat. 23.5oN) and the Tropic of Capricorn
(lat. 23.5oS)
 Tropics and Energy budget
• The Tropics and Earth's Energy Budget.mp4
 Cont’d
 Tropical meteorology:
• The study of the tropical atmosphere.
• The dividing lines, in each hemisphere, between the tropical easterlies and the
midlatitude westerlies in the middle troposphere roughly define the poleward
boundaries of this region.
 Tropical climatology:
• The tropical climate in the Köppen system is defined as having an average
temperature in every month of above 18°C. There is no winter season, and
annual rainfall is large and exceeds the annual evaporation.
• In tropical climates there are often only two seasons: a wet season and a dry
season.
• Tropical climates are frost-free, and changes in the solar angle are small.
 Cont’d
• The tropics include the Equator and parts of North America,
South America, Africa, Asia, and Australia.

• The tropics account for 36 percent of the Earth's landmass and are
home to about a third of the world's people.

• The tropics are warm all year, averaging 25 to 28 degrees Celsius

(77 to 82 degrees Fahrenheit).
• Low-latitude climates
include the tropical moist Climate Zones
(rainforest), wet-dry tropical Low-Latitude Climates
(savanna), and dry tropical
(desert) climates.
• The climate of an area is a
composite of various kinds
of weather.
• The outstanding features of
Hawaii's climate include
mild temperatures
throughout the year,
moderate humidity,
persistence of northeasterly
trade winds, significant
differences in rainfall within
short distances, and
infrequent severe storms.
 Cont’d
Mid-Latitude & Subtropical Climates
• This climate zone
includes the dry-
mid-latitude,
Mediterranean and
moist continental
climates.

• Affected by two air

masses: tropical air
moving toward
poles and
polar air masses
moving toward
equator
 Cont’d
High-Latitude Climates

• This climate zone includes

the boreal forest, tundra, and
highland (alpine) or cold
climates.

dominated by polar and arctic air masses

In which climate zone does Ethiopia belong?

high latitude mid latitude

low latitude
 Regional Climate

Variety of different scales of climatic investigations

• Macroclimate: largest area of study, area extends for 4 x 108 m2, up
to 6000 m vertically. continental in scale
• Mesoscale climate: 103 m2 up to 4 x 108 m2 in area sub continental
in scale
• Local Climate: a group of microclimates that characterize a specific
region; 103 to 108 m2 in size
• Micro Climate: the smallest category 1 to 104 m2 in area

• An individual field
Schematic of climatic scales of study
 Climate classification

• Climate classification: What, Why and How?

• What: Organize regions with similar climates

• Why: Understand what causes the climate to be what it is and when to

worry about departures

• How: Look at moisture, temperature, evaporation, transpiration,

vegetation, altitude, latitude, etc. and decide on some value that sets
the boundary (threshold)- commonly related to plants
 Köppen climate classification scheme
• Uses Monthly mean temps, monthly mean precipitation, and annual
mean temps to establish major climatic zones

• designated with capital letters

• Widely used but frequently criticized

• no agreement between plants and climate

• variability in the factors that set boundary

• climate classification changes constantly

 Köppen climate table
Key characteristic for
Class Class name Subcategory Subcategory name sub categorization

A Tropical humid Af Tropical wet No dry season

Short dry season; heavy
monsoonal rains in other
Am Tropical monsoonal months
Aw Tropical savanna Winter dry season
B Dry BWh Subtropical desert Low-latitude desert
BSh Subtropical steppe Low-latitude dry
BWk Mid-latitude desert Mid-latitude desert
BSk Mid-latitude steppe Mid-latitude dry
C Mild Mid-Latitude Csa Mediterranean Mild with dry, hot summer
Mild with dry, warm
Csb Mediterranean summer
Mild with no dry season,
Cfa Humid subtropical hot summer
Mild with dry winter, hot
Cwa Humid subtropical summer
Mild with no dry season,
Cfb Marine west coast warm summer
Mild with no dry season,
Cfc Marine west coast cool summer
 Humid with severe
Severe Humid winter, no dry
D Mid-Latitude Dfa continental season, hot summer
Humid with severe
Humid winter, no dry
continental season, warm
Dfb summer
Humid with severe,
Humid
dry winter, hot
continental
Dwa summer
Humid with severe,
Humid
dry winter, warm
continental
Dwb summer
Severe winter, no
dry season, cool
Dfc Subarctic summer

Severe, very cold

winter, no dry
Dfd Subarctic season, cool summer
Severe, dry winter,
Dwc Subarctic cool summer
Severe, very cold
and dry winter, cool
Dwd Subarctic summer
Polar tundra, no true
E Polar ET Tundra summer
EF Ice Cap Perennial ice
H Highland
Climate zones of the world
Divided into alphabetic categories
A, B, C, D, E, H zones
 Tropical climates designated with a capital “A”
Based in part on vegetation zones that are sensitive to moisture
and temperature
Tropical (A) Climates -
All tropical climates are warm
the subdivisions are based on differences in rain
Tropical Rainforest (Af) Climates located 0-15° N/S Lat.
Diurnal temperature range is greater than the
difference between the warmest and coolest months
(annual range).
Every month has precipitation and no month is
deficient in rainfall. This high amount of
rainfall keeps the soil moisture at capacity. EVT
occurs at potential rate
Am- Tropical monsoonal climate
Diurnal temperature range is greater than the
difference between the warmest and coolest months (annual range).
seasonal precipitation surplus and deficit
Distinctive dry and wet season related to wind reversal
Aw- Tropical savanna climate
Diurnal temperature range is greater than the
difference between the warmest and coolest months (annual range).
precipitation deficit much of the year
Distinctive dry and wet season
B climates - semi-arid to arid
Several sub categories
All B-climates have less than 30” of annual precipitation
BW climates are arid (less than 10”) and can be divided further based on latitude (temperature)
BWh- low latitude hot and dry
BWk- mid latitude cool and dry
BWh is a function of Hadley cell circulation; occur between 18 and 32° N-S Latitude
BS climates are semi-arid (more than 10” but less than 30” of rain) and can be divided further
based on latitude (temps)
BSh- low latitude hot and dry
BSk- mid latitude cool and dry
A gradational change from A climates on either side of the B climates
C climates- Mesothermal temperate
Warm summers (<10°C); Mild Winters (between -3 to 18°C)
Annual moisture distribution determines subcategories
C-subcategories

Cf = moisture evenly distributed throughout the year

Cw = 10x the amount of moisture in the summer as compared
to the driest winter month
Cs= 3x as much moisture in the winter as compared to the
driest summer month; at least 1 month with less than 3 cm of
precipitation
Csa= called Mediterranean climate
• western edge of mid-latitude continents
Cfa= called a Humid subtropical climate
• Southeastern edge of mid latitude continents
Cfb= called Marine west coast
• Western edge of continents at higher latitudes
D climates- Severe Mid-latitude
All have severe winters; short summers that range form hot in the south to cool to the north
E climates - Polar No true summer
Cold all year long
Climate zones determined by air mass
 Polar Climate
90o -60o
latitude
Cool summers, cold year-round
Dry
 Temperature
60o-30o latitude
True Seasons
Variety of climate patterns
Moderate precipitation
(rain/snow)
 Tropical climate
• 30o - equator
• No winter, warm
year-round
• High temp, rainfall,
humidity
 Climate
Long-term behavior of
atmosphere (100+ years)
Large geographic area
Very slow to change
Average of weather
conditions
Seasonal climatology of Ethiopia
 Term paper 1
Analyze the maximum and minimum temperature climatology of
Ethiopia using NCEP/CRU/GPCC/GPCP/Map-room datasets?
5 pages each student
 Energy and global climate

• Energy and global climate:

• The sun is the primary source of energy for the earth system?
• (atmosphere, hydrosphere, Biosphere, cryosphere and
lithosphere)

10
9
Cont’d
Energy budget
Energy transferred by:
 Cont’d
• Conduction and convection requires a medium to transfer energy
however radiation does not require any medium. It can take place
in vacuum.
 Cont’d
• Stefan-Boltzmann law, statement that the total radiant heat energy
emitted from a surface is proportional to the fourth power of its
absolute temperature.

• The law applies only to blackbodies, theoretical surfaces that absorb all
incident heat radiation

• Wien's displacement law states that the black-body radiation curve for
different temperatures will peak at different wavelengths that are
inversely proportional to the temperature.
• Principles of atmospheric
motion
 Newton's law of motion
 Main atmospheric forces
• PGF
• Coriolis force
• Centrifugal force
• Centripetal forces
• Friction force
• Gravitational forces
• Buoyancy force
 PGF
• The pressure-gradient force is the force that results when
there is a difference in pressure across a surface. In general, a
pressure is a force per unit area, across a surface.

PGF=Pressure
difference/distance
Cont’d
 Coriolis force
• An apparent force that as a result of the
earth's rotation deflects moving objects (such as
projectiles
or air currents) to theright in the northern
hemisphere and to the in thesouthern
hemisphere left
What cause the Coriolis force?
Centerifugal and centripetal force
Centripetal force is the component of force acting on
an object in curvilinear motion which is directed
towards the axis of rotation or centre of curvature.

Centrifugal force is a pseudo force in a circular

motion which acts along the radius and is directed
away from the centre of the circle.
 Scales of atmospheric motion
• Planetary scale:-
 circulations last for week or months
 Six from 5000 to 40,000 km
• Synoptic scale
 circulations last for day to weeks
 Size from 100km to 5000km

• Meso scale
 Circulation las from minute to hours
 Size from 1 to 100 km

• Microscale
 Lasting under a few minutes
 Size less than 1 km
Seabreaze
Land breeze
 Chapter Three: Atmospheric Circulation

Dynamics of the Earth

Ocean Circulation
Land Surface Processes
Vegetation
Carbon Cycle
Snow and Ice
 Atmospheric Circulation
• What is atmospheric circulation?
1
2
3

• What is Coriolis effect?

1
2
3
Why is it warmer near the Earth’s equator
and colder near the poles?
What patterns of global air flow occur?
• https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/psd/cgi-bin/data/composites/printpage.pl
1. Map projection custom
2. custom projection cylindrical equidistance
 Atmospheric circulation
• Atmospheric circulation is the large-scale movement of air
and together with ocean circulation is the means by which
thermal energy is redistributed on the surface of the Earth.

• The Earth's atmospheric circulation varies from year to year,

but the large-scale structure of its circulation remains fairly
constant.
 Main cause of atmospheric circulations
• The two major causes of global wind circulation are inequalities
in radiation distribution over the Earth's surface and the Earth's
rotation.
• Global radiation distribution drives global circulation, whereas the Earth's
rotation determines its shape.
 General Atmospheric Circulation

The general atmospheric circulation results from:

- Heat transfer from the equator toward the poles

- The temperature inversion at the tropopause

- The Earth’s rotation => the Coriolis force

Three-cell Model

Equatorial lows + ITCZ

• Hadley cell,
The three cells
• Ferrel cell and Polar cell
• In which air circulates through
the entire depth of the
troposphere.

How we can plot ITCZ from vector wind?

 monsoon trough

Somalia cross- SW monsoon

quatorial flow

Mascarene High

Pressure and surface wind pattern in summer (July)

 Western Pacific
mo sub-tropical High
ns
oo
SW monsoon n tro tropical easterly flow
ug
h

cross-quatorial flow

Australian High

Pressure and surface wind pattern in summer (July)

 Hadley cell
• The circulation cell closest to the equator is called the Hadley cell.

• The largest cells extend from the equator to between 30 and 40 degrees
north and south, and are named Hadley cells, after English meteorologist
George Hadley.
• Winds are light at the equator because of the weak horizontal pressure
gradients located there.
• The warm surface conditions result in locally low pressure.
• The warm air rises at the equator producing clouds and causing
• instability in the atmosphere.
 Cont’d
• This instability causes thunderstorms to develop and release large amounts
of latent heat.
• Latent heat is just energy released by the storms due to changes from water
vapor to liquid water droplets as the vapor condenses in the clouds,
causing the surrounding air to become more warm and moist, which
essentially provides the energy to drive the Hadley cell.
• The Hadley Cell encompasses latitudes from the equator to about 30°.
• At this latitude surface high pressure causes the air near the ground to
diverge.
 Ferrel Cells
• In the middle cells, which are known as the Ferrel cells, air converges
at low altitudes to ascend along the boundaries between cool polar
air and the warm subtropical air that generally occurs between 60 and
70 degrees north and south.
• This often occurs around the latitude of the UK which gives us an
unsettled weather.
• From 30° latitude to 60° latitude, the Ferrel Cell takes control.
 Cont’d
• The circulation within the Ferrel cell is complicated by a return flow
of air at high altitudes towards the tropics, where it joins sinking air
from the Hadley cell.

• The Ferrel cell moves in the opposite direction to the two other cells
Hadley cell and Polar cell and acts rather like a gear.

• In this cell the surface wind would flow from a southerly direction in
the northern hemisphere.
 Polar Cells
• The smallest and weakest cells are the Polar cells, which extend from between 60
and 70 degrees north and south, to the poles.
• Air in these cells sinks over the highest latitudes and flows out towards the lower
latitudes at the surface.

• The two air masses at 60° latitude do not mix well and form the polar front which
separates the warm air from the cold air.

• Thus the polar front is the boundary between warm tropical air masses and the
colder polar air moving from the north.
 Cont’d
• The polar jet stream aloft/upward is located above the polar front and
flows generally from west to east.

• The polar jet is strongest in the winter because of the greater temperature
contrasts than during the summer.

• Waves along this front can pull the boundary north or south, resulting in
local warm and cold fronts which affect the weather at particular
locations.
Global Air Circulation Patterns
 Roles of Atmospheric Circulation
• The atmospheric convection cells play to convey/transport heat from the warm
equatorial region to the cold polar regions.

• Warm air rises near the equatorial latitudes.

• When the rising warm air reaches the peak of the troposphere, it moves toward the
poles, and when the air cools, it flows and becomes dense enough to sink at latitudes
of about 30oN or 30oS.

• When this cold air reaches the Earth's surface, it is moved toward the equator, and it
then warms and rises.

• Where the air is rising or sinking at the equator, 30o, 50o, 60o, and at the poles.
General Atmospheric Circulation
Jet Stream occurs
here

Jet Stream occurs

here
 Coriolis Effect
• Coriolis Effect comes from the Earth’s rotation influencing the direction of
the air movement.

• The Coriolis Effect causes moving objects or currents on the surface of a

rotating planet to veer to the right (clockwise) in the Northern Hemisphere and
to the left (counterclockwise) in the Southern Hemisphere.

• Air moves horizontally from high to low pressure zones, forming the major
wind belts, including the trade winds, between the equator and 30oN and 30oS;
between 30oN and 30oN and 50o to 60oN and 50o to 60oS; and the polar winds.
 Atmospheric Circulation

Global Atmospheric Circulati

on.mp4
Discuss and debate for five minutes
 Ocean Circulation
• The oceans play a large part of in determining the existing climate of the
Earth.
• It seems to have a crucial influence on climate change due to human
activities.
• Ocean and atmosphere are close interactions and have a strong system.
• Oceans have high capacity to contain heat compared with the atmosphere
driving to gradually raise temperature in the oceans.
• Oceans redistribute heat throughout the climate system through their internal
circulation.
 How does the Ocean affect weather?
• Ocean currents affect the temperature of the land they pass by
Cold ocean currents = cooling effect
Warm ocean currents = warming effect
Temperature changes affect pressure – which then creates
WINDS
Winds blow this cooling or warming effect over the
Science Saurus Sections 203-204-205-206
Ocean circulation has a large effect on weather and climate
When this deep current is flowing, it
acts as a “heat conveyor belt”, bringing
warm surface water to the North
Atlantic, and keeping the whole
Northern Hemisphere warmer.
But, this current could stop forming if
the water in the North Atlantic did not
get dense enough to sink.
 Vegetation - Carbon
Carbon affetct climate when it is in the The 4 steps of the carbon cycle.
atmosphere • Carbon enters the atmosphere as CO2.
Gases move through the earth reservoirs: • CO2 is absorbed by green plants.
• Atmosphere • Animals consume plants, thereby,
• Biosphere (living things) incorporating carbon into their system.
• Lithosphere (solid earth) • Animals and plants die, their bodies
• Hydrosphere (freshwater and oceans) decompose and carbon is reabsorbed back
into the atmosphere.
Carbon cycle
 The Atmospheric Gases Exchange
Gas Importance Added to Removed From
Atmosphere Atmosphere
Nitrogen: N2 Building block of decaying plant and Biological nitrogen fixing
protein material animal products soil bacteria,

Oxygen: O2 Essential for photosynthesis Respiration, Oxidation

breething breathing.

Water vapor GHG evaporation condensation

(H2Ov) Source of Fresh
water
Carbon Constituent of Respiration, photosynthesis
dioxide Organic mater Fuel burning
(CO2) GHG
Gas Importance Added to Atmosphere Removed From
Atmosphere

Methane (Ch4) GHG Wetlands

Termites
Livestock
Rice Cultivation
Nirous GHG •Wetlands :Anerobic lagoons
Oxide(N2O) Burning fossil fuels and wood
Widespread use of Nitrogen
based fertilizers
Gas Importance Added to Atmosphere Removed From
Atmosphere

Ozone O3 At Surface: Pollutant, At surface: vehicle chlorine containing

GHG emissions gases
At Stratosphere: At Stratospher: (chlorofluorocarbons
Protects Earth from Photochemical – CFCs):
UV radiation Reaction

Aerosols: Condensation Nucei Industries Precipitation

Cooling effect Volcanic eruption
 El Niño and Global Warming
• El Niño in general occurs in every 3 to 7 years and appears around
Christmas period.

• Droughts and floods occurring almost all continents are associated with
El Niño.

• ENSO (El Niño Southern Oscillation) is caused by the shift of the

atmospheric-oceanic conditions, due to the way the oceans store and
transport heat.
 At decadal and annual time scales

Decadal & annual-scale cycles (2 to 45 yr

periods)
 Pacific Decadal Oscillation 25 - 45 yr cycle
 El Niño/La Niña (ENSO) 2 - 8 yr cycle

Driven by changes in ocean circulation

 El Niño
• What is El Niño?
• Houghton, 2009 indicates that El Niño is the prolonged
warming in the Pacific Ocean sea surface temperature compared
with the average value. It is a warming of at least 0.5°C (0.9°F)
averaged over the east-central tropical Pacific Ocean.
• A pattern of ocean surface temperature in the Pacific off the
coast of South America, which has a large influence on world
climate (Houghton, 2009).
 El Niño
• The first signs of an El Niño are:
• Rise in surface pressure over the Indian Ocean, Indonesia and Australia
• Fall in air pressure over Tahiti and the rest of the central and eastern Pacific
Ocean 
• Trade winds in the south Pacific weaken or head east
• Warm air rises near Peru, causing rain in the northern Peruvian deserts
• Warm water spreads from the west Pacific and the Indian Ocean to the east
Pacific. It takes the rain with it, causing extensive drought in the western
Pacific and rainfall in the normally dry eastern Pacific.
 El Niño
El Niño: Warm water
pool approaches South
American coast.
Absence of cold
upwelling increases
warming
 La Niña
La Niña: Equatorial
winds gather warm
water pool toward the
west. Cold water
upwells along South
American coast
 El Niño vs La Niña

D:\Arbaminch University\AMU PPT\What is ENSO, El nino

, La nina
, Southern Oscillation, Walker Circulation UPSC IAS.mp4
5 minutes discussion on the video
Sea surface temperature anomalies for El Niño (Dry)
and La Niña (Wet) Conditions
IOD
 Air mass
• An air mass is a body of air with a relatively constant temperature and
moisture content over a significant altitude.
• A source region is where the air mass forms, and takes on those
characteristics
Ex. Forms over water – high moisture
Forms over land – low moisture
 Forms over low latitudes – high temp.
Forms over high latitudes – low temp.
• A front is the boundary at which two air masses of different temperature and
moisture content meet. 
Can be warm or cold
• Can contain a lot of moisture or not a lot of moisture
 Cont’d
• Air mass that form over land are called
continental = (c)

• Air masses that form over water are called

maritime = (m)
 Cont’d
• Air masses that form at high latitudes (cold) are
called – polar (P)

• Air masses that form at low latitudes (warm) are

called – tropical (T)

• Air masses are identified by two letters, first describes the moisture,
the second describes the temperature. Ex. mT
 Air Mass video
• What are the Air Masses.mp4
 Front
• A front is a boundary where two air masses meet

• A cold front forms when cold air moves into an area occupied by a
warmer air mass
 Fronts
• A cold front is defined as the
transition zone where a cold
air mass is replacing a
warmer air mass.
• Places where air masses
meet
• 4 Types: Warm, Cold,
Occluded, Stationary
• Each kind can bring
different kinds of weather
Characteristics of a cold front:
 Moves rapidly
 Stays close to the ground – more dense
 Associated with dark clouds
 Precipitation is brief, but heavy
 Associated with severe weather,
thunderstorms, hail, and tornadoes
A warm front forms when warm air moves into an area
occupied by a colder air mass

Characteristics of a warm front are:

 Slow moving
 high thin cirrus clouds form in front of the warm front
 Precipitation is long, but light
 Less dense air moves up and over cold more dense air
mass
Occluded Front: Stationary Front:
 Stationary fronts
• Stationary fronts form where
cold and warm air masses meet,
and both air masses have equal
force,

• Cold front has same strength as

warm front

• Many days of precipitation

 Occluded fronts
• Occluded (obstructed)
fronts form where a warm
air mass is caught between
two cooler air masses.
• Two cooler air masses move
the warm air mass up,
cooling of the air mass
occurs and cloud formation
with precipitation will
happen
 Weather fronts video

• What are weather fronts and how do they affect our weather.mp4
High and low pressure characteristics
 How does Air Pressure affect weather?

• How much the earth’s atmosphere is pressing down on us

• Measured with a BAROMETER

• If it CHANGES, then new weather is on the way:

• Falling Air Pressure = stormy weather coming
• Rising Air Pressure = fair weather coming
• Steady Air Pressure = no change is coming
Winds = created from differences in air pressure

• Moves from areas of HIGH to LOW pressure

• Greater the difference in pressure, the FASTER the wind blows
• Measured with wind vanes and anemometers or you can estimate
with the Beaufort Wind Scale
Beaufort Wind Scale
 Global Winds
• Thousands of kilometers long; can cause weather to move in
different directions

• Jet stream, prevailing westerlies, doldrums, horse latitudes, trade

winds
• Caused by the temperature difference in different regions
• Hot Tropical Regions—causes air to rise
• Cold polar Regions—causes air to sink
 Global Winds
• Also affected by Earth’s Spin

• Coriolis Effect = causes winds to curve to

the right in the N. Hemisphere; to the left in
the S. Hemisphere
Big Winds Blowin’ Worksheet
Relative Humidity

 Measure of the amount of moisture in

the air compared to what the air could
hold
 How “full” of water the air is
 Expressed as %
 100% relative humidity = saturated air
 Cont’d
Controlled by temperature
1. Warm air holds more moisture than cool air
(more space for water vapor between air
molecules)
2. As air warms, relative humidity decreases
3. As air cools, relative humidity increases
Dew Point
 =Temperature at which the air is saturated
(100% relative humidity)
Several events can occur when the dew point temp.
is reached:
1. If dew point temp. is above freezing:
a. water vapor condenses as liquid
b. dew will form on surfaces
c. cloud droplets will form in air
 Cont’d
2. If dew point temp. is below freezing:
a. water vapor condenses as a solid
b. frost on surfaces
c. snow (or hail) in the air
Rainbows
 Caused by sunshine on raindrops
 White light (all colors) is refracted (bent) into colors as it enters and
exits the drop
 To see a rainbow you must have the sun behind you and raindrops
in the air
 Diagram:
 Thunderstorms
Requires a mature
cumulonimbus cloud
Signs
a. Sudden reversal of
wind direction
b. Noticeable increase in
wind speed
c. Sudden drop in
temperature
 Thunderstorms
Possible weather:
a. heavy rains (flash floods)
b. lightning (forest fires)
c. thunder (frightens animals)
d. hail (crop damage)
e. tornadoes
f. strong, gusty winds
Safety Rules
 Stay indoors
 Prepare for lightning, strong winds
 Listen on radio/TV for tornado watch/warning
 Thunderstorms don’t last long
Lightning Storm
Cumulonimbus cloud becomes electrically charged and ground below
has opposite charge
• Lightning stroke: flow of current thru air (a poor
conductor) from the – to the +
• Lightning can flow from cloud to ground, cloud to
cloud, and from ground to cloud
• Bright light is caused by glowing air molecules
heated by the current
• Lightning follows the path of least resistance
(easiest way to positive)
• Lightning rod offers lightning an easy, safe path to
the ground (+)
Thunder is the shock wave caused by the explosive expansion of
heated air
• Sound travels @ about 1100 ft/sec in air
• 5,280 ft in one mile
• Distance from you to lightning = number of seconds between
seeing the flash and hearing the thunder divided by 5.
(5,280 ft / 1100 ft/sec = 5 seconds)
Types of Lightning

Streak or bolt
a. Single or branched lines of light
b. Common in Puget Sound area
 Other types of
Sheet lightning
a. shapeless flash over wide area a. heat, ribbon,
b. is cloud-to-cloud bolt hidden by the clouds beaded (types of bolt)
c. common in Puget Sound area b. ball (only other
shape lightning can
have)
 Safety rules for lightning storms
 Stay indoors
 Stay away from anything that conducts electricity (stove,
sink, telephone, TV)
 Get out of the water and off of small boats
 Stay away from open doors, windows, fireplaces
 Stay in your car (very safe place to be)
 Don’t stand under lone trees or in open places
 Avoid hilltops
 If your hair stands on end, or your skin tingles, drop to the
ground but try to keep as little contact with the ground as
possible
Tornado (a.k.a twister, cyclone)

Counterclockwise column of rotating air extending from

cumulonimbus cloud
Per square foot, is the most destructive atmospheric event
Rated by wind speed
“Tornado season” = April, May, June
Tornadoes that form over water are called “waterspouts”
• Behavior of a tornado is unpredictable
Typical tornado will:
1. Occur between 3-7 pm
2. Travel 4 miles
3. Be 300-400 m wide
4. Travel 25-40 mi/hour
5. Have wind speeds up to 300 mi/hr
6. Produce extremely low pressure
7. Be dark due to debris picked up
 Safety Rules
 Rule #1: Take immediate action!
 Move away from tornado’s path

Tornado’s path

Move away at a right angle

• Lie flat in nearest ditch, etc.
• At home
a. open windows, doors
b. seek shelter in basement or under heavy table in middle of house
 Chapter Four

Tropical Cyclone
 Global distribution
 Cyclogenesis and Cyclolysis
 Stages of a tropical cyclone
 Extratropical transition
 Tropical Cyclone
• Tropical cyclone, also called typhoon or hurricane, • Rated by wind speed
an intense circular storm that originates over warm (category 1 to 5)
tropical oceans and is characterized by low •
Starts and grows over warm
atmospheric pressure, high winds, and heavy rain.
ocean water
• Drawing energy from the sea surface and
• Composed of bands of
maintaining its strength as long as it remains over
warm water,
thunderstorms spiraling
counterclockwise around a
• a tropical cyclone generates winds that exceed low pressure center
119 km (74 miles) per hour.
• In extreme cases winds may exceed 240 km (150
miles) per hour, and gusts may surpass 320 km
(200 miles) per hour.
 Tropical Cyclone
Nicknames

1. Atlantic: hurricane
2. SE Asia, Japan: typhoon
3. Australia: willy-willy
4. Indian Ocean: cyclone
Tropical Cyclone, Hurricane, Storm Formation - Geography of UPSC, IAS,
CDS, NDA.mp4
 Characteristics
 Several hundred miles wide
 Last many days (even weeks)
 Winds from 74-200 mi/hr
 Contains an “eye”
a. Small region of low pressure
b. Surrounded by highest winds
c. Calm, peaceful, sunny weather
d. Last for about 1 hour as hurricane passes by
 Safety Rules
 Prepare for high winds
 Prepare for flooding (greatest source of damage)
a. Up to 20 in. of rain
b. Flooding by coastal water
 3. Prepare for thunderstorms
 4. Have on hand stored food, water, blankets,
candles, matches, radio, etc.
 5. Seek shelter
 Cont’d
• Tropical cyclones do not form very close to the equator and do not
ever cross the equator;
• The western North Pacific is the most active tropical cyclone region.
• It is also the region with the largest number of intense tropical
cyclones (orange through red tracks);
• Tropical cyclones in the western North Pacific and the North Atlantic
can have tracks that extend to very high latitudes.
 When and where?
• Note that tropical cyclones do not
form near the equator due to the
lack of the Coriolis effect.
• B/c the Coriolis force is important
to all cyclones because all areas of
low pressure must rotate to
maintain their structure. Tropical
cyclones draw air into the center
through this rotation. This air then
converges from all sides and is
forced to rise, creating clouds and
precipitation as the pressure drops.
• Also, storms tend to curve to the north and
east as they interact with the westerlies.
 Cont’d
• In general, sea surface temperatures are warmer along eastern coasts
than western coasts and are warmest near Indonesia accounting for
the strongest and most frequent activity.
Stages of tropical cyclone
 Cyclogenesis and
Cyclolysis
• Cyclogenesis is the development or strengthening of cyclonic
circulation in the atmosphere (a low-pressure area).
• Cyclogenesis is an umbrella term for at least three different
processes, all of which result in the development of some sort of
cyclone, and at any size from the microscale to the synoptic scale.
• cyclogenesis is (meteorology) the process which leads to the
formation of tropical storms, cyclones and hurricanes; typically
involves an interaction that leads to vertical wind shear.
 Cont’d
• Cyclolysis:- Any weakening of cyclonic circulation in the
atmosphere; the opposite of cyclogenesis.
• Cyclolysis, which refers to the circulation, is to be distinguished
from filling, an increase in atmospheric pressure, although the two
processes commonly occur simultaneously
 Further reading
• USAID. 2015. USAID LEAF‘s Climate Change Curriculum. USAID Lowering Emissions in Asia
Forests Program (USAID LEAF). Winrock International and US Forest Service. Bangkok,
Thailand.
• Climate Science Primer: http://www.fs.usda.gov/ccrc/climate-basics/climate-primer
• Climate Basics - Frequently Asked Questions
http://www.fs.usda.gov/ccrc/climate-basics/climate-faq
• Foukal, P., C. Frohlich, H. Spruit, and T. M. L. Wigley. 2006. Variations in solar luminosity and
their effect on the Earth's climate. Nature 443: 161-166.
• International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Assessment Reports:
http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/publications_and_data_reports.shtml
Thank you !
Practical session
Canadian model

1. https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/clima
te-change/science-research-data/modeling-projections-analysis/centre-m
odelling-analysis.html
2. click climate model data
3.CanESM2/CGCM4
4. CanESM2
Step1
Step2
Step3
Step4
Step5
• Analyze the attached climate data by using basic descriptive statistics
• Describe the inter-annual variability
• Produce temporal anomaly plots for decadal and annual basis