OPTICS

Content

• Interference of light, • Production and analysis of polarized

light,
• Young's double slit experiment,
• Brewster's law,
• Displacements of fringes and its uses,
• Malus law,
• Newton's rings,
• Polarization by double refraction,
• Diffraction of light,
• Retardation plates,
• Fresnel and Fraunh offer diffraction,
• Nicol prism,
• Diffraction by single slit,
• Optical activity,
• Resolving power of optical instruments,
• Polarimeters,
• Diffraction grating,
• polaroid.
 Optics
Optics is the branch of physics which involves the behavior and properties of
light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments
that use or detect it.
Optics usually describes the behavior of visible, ultraviolet, and infrared
light. Because light is an electromagnetic wave, other forms of electromagnetic
radiation such as X-rays, microwaves, and radio waves exhibit similar
properties.
 Theories of light

Newton’s corpuscular theory of light

Huygens’s wave theory of light

Quantum theory of light

 Newton’s corpuscular theory of light

Newton’s corpuscular theory of light is based on the

following points…..
1. Light consists of very tiny particles known as
“corpuscle”.
2. These corpuscles on emission from the source of
light travel in straight line with high velocity.
3. When these particles enter the eyes, they
produce image of the object or sensation of vision.
4. Corpuscles of different colors have different sizes.
 Huygens’s wave theory of light
Sir Isaac Newton proposed that light was made of tiny particles
known as the photons while Christian Huygens believed that light
was made of waves propagating perpendicular to the direction of its
movement.
In 1678, Huygens proposed that “Every point on a wave-front may be
considered a source of secondary spherical wavelets which spread out
in the forward direction at the speed of light. The new wave-front is the
tangential surface to all of these secondary wavelets”. This theory of
light is known as the ‘Huygens’ Principle’.
Using the above-stated principle, Huygens was successful in deriving
the laws of reflection and refraction of light. He was also successful in
explaining the linear and spherical propagation of light using this
theory. However, he wasn’t able to explain the diffraction effects of
light. Later, in 1803, the experiment conducted by Thomas Young on
the interference of light proved the Huygens wave theory of light to be
correct. Later in 1815, Fresnel provided mathematical equations for
Young’s experiment.
 Wavefront
A wavefront is a surface over which an optical
wave has a constant phase. For example, a
wavefront could be the surface over which the
wave has a maximum (the crest of a water wave)
or a minimum (the trough of the same wave)
value.

The shape of a wavefront is usually determined

by the geometry of the source. A point source has
wavefronts that are spheres whose centers are at
the point source. A very large sheet of material
that is uniformly illuminated would generate
wavefronts that are plane waves parallel to the
sheet.
 Quantum Theory Of Light
Max Planck proposed that light is made of finite packets of energy known as a
light quantum and it depends on the frequency and velocity of light. Later, in
1905, Einstein proposed that light possessed the characteristics of both particle
and wave. He suggested that light is made of small particles called photons.
Quantum mechanics gave proof of the dual nature of light. Most of the time, light
behaves as a wave and it is categorized as one of the electromagnetic waves
because it is made of both electric and magnetic fields. As proposed by Einstein,
light is made of tiny packets of energy known as photons.

The formula devised by Planck determines the energy of a photon and it also
shows that the energy is directly proportional to the frequency of the light.
E=hf
 Interference of Light
when two waves superpose each other to form a resultant wave of greater or lower
amplitude this phenomenon is known as interference. Interference usually refers to the
interaction of waves that are correlated or coherent with each other, because either they
come from the same source or they have the same or nearly the same frequency.
Interference effects can be observed with all types of waves, for example, light, radio,
acoustic, surface water waves or matter waves.
Conditions of Interference
When waves come together they can interfere
constructively or destructively. To set up a stable
and clear interference pattern, two conditions
must be met:
 The sources of the waves must be coherent,
which means they emit identical waves with a
constant phase difference.
 The waves should be monochromatic - they
should be of a single wavelength.
Coherent Sources
Those sources of light which emit light waves
continuously of same wavelength, and time
period, frequency and amplitude and have
zero phase difference or constant phase
difference are coherent sources.
 Types Of Interference
Constructive Interference
When two light waves superpose with
each other in such a way that the crest of
one wave falls on the crest of the second
wave, and trough of one wave falls on the
trough of the second wave, then the
resultant wave has larger amplitude and it
is called constructive interference.
Destructive Interference
When two light waves superpose with
each other in such a way that the crest
of one wave coincides the trough of
the second wave, then the amplitude of
resultant wave becomes zero and it is
called destructive interference.
Theory of Interference Fringes
𝑥𝑑
∴ 𝑃𝑎𝑡h 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒=
𝐷
 Condition for Bright Fringes
If the path difference is a whole number multiple of wavelength then the points will be
bright.

This equation gives the distances of the bright fringes from the point . At , the path
difference is zero and a bright fringe is formed.
When

…………………………….

Therefore, the distance between any two consecutive bright fringes,

 Condition for dark fringes
If the path difference is an odd number multiple of half wavelength, then the point will be dark.

This equation gives the distances of the dark fringes from the point .
When,

…………………………….

The distance between any two consecutive dark fringes,

The distance between any two-consecutive bright or dark fringes is known as fringe width. Therefore,
alternately bright and dark parallel fringes are formed. The fringes are formed on both sides of . Moreover,
from equations and it is clear that the width of the bright fringe is equal to the width of the dark fringe.
 Problems
1) Light of wavelength 550 nm from a narrow slit is incident on a double slit. The overall separation
of 5 fringes on a screen 200 cm away is 1 cm. Compute the slit separation.
2) Two straight and narrow parallel slits 1mm apart are illuminated by monochromatic light. Fringes
formed on the screen held at a distance of 100cm from the slits are 0.50mm apart. What is the
frequency of light?
3) A light source emits light of two wavelengths λ 1= 480 nm and λ1= 740 nm. The source is used in a
double slit interference experiment. The distance between the sources and screen is 1.5 m and the
distance between the slits is 0.025 mm. Calculate the separation between the third order bright
fringes due to these two wavelengths.
4) In Young’s double slit experiment the separation of the slits is 1.9 mm and the fringe spacing is
0.31 mm at a distance of 1 m from the slits. Calculate the wavelength of light.
 Polarization

The process by which light waves vibrating in different planes can be made to
vibrate in a particular plane is called polarization of light. Sound waves in a gas
or liquid do not exhibit polarization, since the oscillation is always in the
direction the wave travels.
Unpolarized Light
Ordinary light waves whose
vibrations normal to the
direction of propagation, spread
all around the source with equal
amplitude is called unpolarized
light. The figure given below
shows the unpolarized light.
Polarized Light
The transverse light waves
vibrating on a particular plane
or parallel to it is called
polarized light.
 Classification of Polarization

Linear Polarization

Circular Polarization

Elliptical Polarization
 Linear Polarization
A plane electromagnetic wave is said to be linearly polarized. The transverse
electric field wave is accompanied by a magnetic field wave as illustrated.
 Circular Polarization
Circularly polarized light consists of two
perpendicular electromagnetic plane waves of
equal amplitude and 90° difference in phase. If light
is composed of two plane waves of equal amplitude
but differing in phase by 90°, then the light is said
to be circularly polarized.
If while looking at the source, the electric vector
of the light coming toward you appears to be
rotating counterclockwise, the light is said to be
right-circularly polarized. If clockwise, then left-
circularly polarized light.
 Elliptically polarized light

Elliptically polarized light consists of two perpendicular waves of

unequal amplitude which differ in phase by 90°. The illustration
shows right- elliptically polarized light.
 Brewster’s Law
In 1811 Brewster’s proposed it. The law states that “When unpolarized light is incident at
polarizing angle, the tangent of polarizing angle is numerically equal to the Refractive index of
the material”.
If is the angle and is the refractive index of the medium, then

This is known as Brewster’s law.

Mathematical derivation:
If natural light is incident on a smooth surface at the polarizing angle, it is reflected along and
refracted along , as shown in figure. So,
Brewster found that the maximum polarization of reflected ray occurs when it is at right angle to the refracted
ray.
It means that,

Where, represents the incident angle and the refractive angle respectively.
According the Snell’s law,

Where andare the absolute refractive index of the reflecting surface and the surrounding medium. It follows
from equation (1) and (2) that

…………..(3)
Equation (3) shows that the polarizing angle depends on the refractive index of the reflecting surface. The
polarizing angle is also known as Brewster angle and denote as . Light reflected from any angle other than
 Malus’ Law
According to Malus, “when completely plane polarized light is incident on the
analyzer, the intensity of the light transmitted by the analyzer is directly
proportional to the square of the cosine of angle between the transmission axes of
the analyzer and the polarizer.

Suppose the angle between the transmission axes of the analyzer and the polarizer is
If is the amplitude of the electric vector transmitted by the polarizer, then intensity
of the light incident on the analyzer is
The electric field vector can be resolved into two components, . The analyzer will transmit
only the component which is parallel to its transmission axis. However, the component
will be absorbed by the analyser. Therefore, the intensity of light transmitted by the
analyzer is,

This proves Malus’ law.

When That is the intensity of light transmitted by the analyzer is maximum when the
transmission axes of the analyzer and the polarizer are parallel.
When That is the intensity of light transmitted by the analyzer is minimum when the
transmission axes of the analyzer and polarizer are perpendicular to each other.
 Problem
1. The refractive index for plastic is 1.25. Calculate the angle of refraction
for a ray of light incident at polarizing angle.
2. The critical angle for certain wavelength of light in the case of a piece
of glass is 40o. Find the polarizing angle for glass.
3. If unpolarized light falls on two polarizing sheets placed one on top of
the other, what must be the angle between the characteristics
directions of the sheet if the intensity of the transmitted light is 1/3 of
the maximum intensity of the incident beam?
 
 Diffraction

Diffraction of light is defined as the bending of light around corners such that it
spreads out and illuminates areas where a shadow is expected. In general, it is
hard to separate diffraction from interference since both occur simultaneously.
The silver lining which we witness in the sky is caused due to diffraction of light.
When the sunlight passes through or encounters the cloud, a silver lining is seen
in the sky.
 Condition of diffraction

There are two conditions for the production of diffraction-

1. In case of straight edge: The edge should be very sharp and its width is to
be equal to or is of the order of the wavelength, λ of light.
2. In case of thin hole: the diameter of the hole should be extremely very
small such that it is equal to or is of the order of the wavelength λ of light.
 BASIS OF
COMPARISON FRESNEL Diffraction FRAUNHOFER Diffraction
If the source of light and screen are at If the source of light and screen are at infinite
finite distance from the obstacle, then the distance from the obstacle then the diffraction is
Description diffraction is referred to as Fresnel referred to as Fraunhofer diffraction.  
Diffraction.  

To obtain Fresnel diffraction, zone plates To obtain Fraunhofer diffraction, the single-
Obtaining The are used.   double plane diffraction grating is used.  
Diffraction
Shape and intensity of diffraction pattern Shape and intensity of a Fraunhofer diffraction
Shape & Intensity change as the waves propagate remains constant.  
Of Diffraction downstream of the scattering source.  

Incident Incident wavefronts are spherical.    Incident wavefronts on the diffracting obstacle
Wavefronts are plane.  
The convex lens is not required to  Plane diffracting wavefronts are converged by
converge the spherical wavefronts.   means of a convex lens to produce a diffraction
Converging The pattern.
Wavefronts
 Diffraction Grating
An arrangement consisting of a large number of equidistant parallel narrow slits
of equal width separated by equal opaque portions is known as a diffraction
grating.

The plane transmission grating is a plane sheet of transparent material on which

opaque rulings are made with a fine diamond pointer. The modern commercial
form of grating contains about 6000 lines per centimetre.

The rulings act as obstacles having a definite width ‘b’ and the transparent space
between the rulings act as slit of width ‘a’. The combined width of a ruling and
a slit is called grating element (e). Points on successive slits separated by a
distance equal to the grating element are called corresponding points.
 Theory of Plane Diffraction Grating
Here, MN represents the section of a plane transmission grating. AB, CD, EF … are the successive slits of
equal width a and BC, DE … be the rulings of equal width b (Fig). Let e = a + b.

Let a plane wave front of monochromatic light of wave length λ be incident normally on the grating.
According to Huygen’s principle, the points in the slit AB, CD … etc act as a source of secondary wavelets
which spread in all directions on the other side of the grating.
 Let us consider the secondary diffracted wavelets, which makes an angle θ with
the normal to the grating.
 
The path difference between the wavelets from one pair of corresponding
points A and C is CG = (a + b) sin θ.  
The point P1 will be bright, when
 
(a + b) sin θ = m λ where m = 0, 1, 2, 3
  
(a + b) sin θ = 0, satisfies the condition for brightness for m = 0. Hence the
wavelets proceeding in the direction of the incident rays will produce maximum
intensity at the centre O of the screen. This is called zero order maximum or
central maximum.
 If (a + b) sin θ1 = λ, the diffracted wavelets inclined at an angle θ1 to the incident
direction, reinforce and the first order maximum is obtained. 
Similarly, for second order maximum, (a + b) sin θ2 = 2λ. On either side of
central maxima different orders of secondary maxima are formed at the point P1,
P2.
 
In general, (a + b) sin θ = m λ is the condition for maximum intensity, where m is
an integer, the order of the maximum intensity.

When white light is used, the diffraction pattern consists of a white central
maximum and on both sides continuous coloured images are formed.
where N = 1/a+b , gives the number of grating element or number  of lines per
unit width of the grating.
Problem: A parallel beam of monochromatic source of light is
allowed to incident normally on a plane transmission grating
having 5000 lines per cm. A second order spectral line is found to
be diffracted at an angle. Find the wavelength of the light.
Solution:
Here,

Now,
 Difference between Diffraction and Interference
Interference Diffraction
Interference may be defined as waves Diffraction, on the other hand, can be termed
emerging from two different sources, as secondary waves that emerge from the
producing different wavefronts. different parts of the same wave.

The intensity of all the points on maxima is of In diffraction, there is a variance of the
similar intensity in interference. intensity of positions.

It is absolutely dark in the region of minimum We see a variance in the region of minimum
intensity, in the case of interference. intensity in diffraction.

The width of the fringes is equal in The width of the fringes is not equal in
interference. diffraction.

The sources are referred to as interference  If the number of sources is more than two
sources if the number of sources is as few as the sources are referred to as diffraction
two sources. sources.