1

Engineering Materials II

Lecture 1- Steels

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 Steel
2

 Steels are iron–carbon alloys that may contain appreciable

concentrations of other alloying elements
 The mechanical properties of steel is highly dependent on the
composition of carbon i.e. which is normally less than 1.0wt%.
 Some of the more common steels are
classified according to carbon concentration—namely, into
low-, medium-, and high carbon types

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 Steel production
3

 Steelmaking is the process used to produce steels of

controlled compositions and structures.
 The products resulting from the steelmaking process are more

refined, more malleable, and more ductile, than pig irons.

 They are ready for subsequent shaping processes

Raw materials
1. Molten pig iron which is transferred directly from a nearby
smelting plant
2. Cast pig iron brought from a remote smelting plant
3. Steel scrap
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 Contd.
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The aims of steelmaking processes are:

 To remove unwanted impurities present in the pig irons and

steel scarps
 To adjust the contents of carbon and other alloying elements

Main streams of steel making Processes

1. Bessemer Process
2. Basic oxygen steelmaking process
3. Electric steelmaking process

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 1. Bessemer Process

 the first inexpensive industrial process for the mass-

production of steel from molten pig iron.
 The key principle is removal of impurities from the iron by
oxidation with air being blown through the molten iron.
 the process is carried on in a large ovoid steel container lined
with clay or dolomite called the Bessemer converter.

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 Contd.
6

 At the top- is an opening, usually tilted to

the side relative to the body of the vessel
 At the bottom-is perforated with a

number of channels called tuyères

through which air is forced into the
converter.
 The converter is pivoted on trunnions so

that it can be rotated to receive the

charge, turned upright during conversion
and then rotated again for
pouring out the molten steel at the end.

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 Contd.
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Oxidation
 The oxidation process removes impurities such as silicon,
manganese, and carbon as oxides
 These oxides either escape as gas or form a solid slag.
 In order to give the steel the desired properties, other substances
could be added to the molten steel when conversion was complete,
such as spiegeleisen (an iron carbon-manganese alloy).
 When the required steel had been formed, it was poured out into
ladles and then transferred into molds and the lighter slag is left
behind.
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 2. Basic Oxygen Furnace

The BOF is an adaptation of the Bessemer converter.

the basic oxygen process uses pure oxygen.

Sequence

Integrated steel mills transfer the molten pig iron from the blast furnace to

the BOF
In modern practice, steel scrap is added to the pig iron, accounting for about

30% of a typical BOF charge.

Lime (CaO) is also added. After charging, the lance is inserted into the vessel

Pure O2 is blown at high velocity through the lance, causing combustion and

heating at the surface of the molten pool.

Carbon dissolved in the iron and other impurities such as silicon, manganese,

and phosphorus are oxidized.

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 Contd.
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 Reactions
escaped through the mouse of the BOF vessel

Removed as slag
The C content in the iron decreases almost linearly with time during the process, thus


permitting fairly predictable control over carbon levels in the steel.

 recent advances include the use of nozzles in the bottom of the vessel
through which oxygen is injected into the molten iron. This allows
Better mixing

Shorter processing times

Lower carbon content and higher yield

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 Contd.
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 BOF sequence during processing cycle:

(1) charging of scrap 2. pig iron 3. Blowing

4. tapping the molten steel; 5. pouring off the slag.

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 3. Electric arc furnace
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 Although pig iron was originally used as the charge in this type of furnace, scrap iron and scrap
steel are the primary raw materials today
 have removable roofs for charging from above; tapping is accomplished by tilting the entire
furnace.
 Scrap iron and steel selected for their compositions, together with alloying ingredients and
limestone (flux), are charged into the furnace and heated by an electric arc that flows between
large electrodes and the charge metal.
 Complete melting requires about 2 hours; tap-to-tap time is 4 hours.
 are noted for better-quality steel but requires higher cost per ton.
 generally associated with production of alloy steels, tool steels, and stainless steels.

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 Microstructure of Steel
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 Five main constituents:

a)Ferrite
b)Austenite
c)Cementite
d)Pearlite
e)Martensite

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 Ferrite
13

 Has a body-centred cubic (BCC) crystal structure.

 It is soft and ductile and imparts these properties to the steel.
 Very little carbon (less than 0.01% carbon will dissolve in
ferrite at room temperature). Often known as α iron.

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 Austenite
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 This is the structure of iron at high temperatures

(over 912ºC).
 Has a face-centre cubic (FCC) crystal structure.
 This material is important in that it is the structure
from which other structures are formed when the
material cools from elevated temperatures.
 Often known as γ iron.
 Not present at room temperatures.

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 Cementite
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 A compound of iron and

carbon, iron carbide (C)
 It is hard and brittle

 its presence in steels causes

an increase in hardness
and a reduction in ductility
and toughness.

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 Pearlite
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 A laminated structure formed of

alternate layers of ferrite and
cementite.
 It combines the hardness and
strength of cementite with the
ductility of ferrite and is the key to
the wide range of the properties of
steels.
 The laminar structure also acts as a
barrier to crack movement as in
composites, this gives it toughness.

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 Martensite
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 A very hard needle-like structure

of iron and carbon.
 Only formed by very rapid
cooling from the austenitic
structure (i.e. above upper
critical temperature).

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 Effects of Alloying Elements
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Alloying elements are added to effect/bring changes in the properties of



steels
1. Carbon-The hardness of steel (or more accurately, the hardenability) is
increased by the addition of more carbon, up to about 0.65 percent.
Wear resistance can be increased in amounts up to about 1.5 percent


2. Manganese-Manganese is added to steel to improve hot working

properties and increase strength, toughness and hardenability.
is usually present in quantities from 0.5% to 2%, but certain special steels


are made in the range of 10% to 15%.

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 Contd.
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3. Silicon- may be present in varying quantities up to 1% in the finished steel and

has a beneficial effect on certain properties such as tensile strength.

It is also used in special steels in the range of 1.5% to 2.5% silicon to improve the hardenability.

In higher percentages-finds certain applications in some tool steels where it seems to have a

hardening and toughening effect.

4. Chromium- increases response to heat treatment
It also increases depth of hardness penetration

Most chromium-bearing alloys contain 0.50 to 1.50% chromium

Stainless steels contain chromium in large quantities (11to 25%), frequently in combination with

nickel, and possess increased resistance to oxidation and corrosion.

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 Contd.
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5- Molybdenum - Molybdenum adds greatly to the penetration of hardness and increases

toughness.
It tends to help steel resist softening at high temperatures and is an important means of assuring

high creep strength.

It is generally use in comparatively small quantities ranging from 0.10 to 0.40%.

6. Nickel- increases strength and toughness but is one of the least effective elements for
increasing hardenability.
The most general quantity addition is from 1 to 4%, although for certain applications,

percentages as high as 36% are used.

Steels containing nickel usually have more impact resistance, especially at low temperatures.

Certain stainless steels employ nickel up to about 20%.

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 Contd.
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7. Vanadium- usually in quantities from 0.15 to 0.20%

retards grain growth, even after hardening from high
temperatures or after periods of extended heating.
Tool steel containing vanadium seem to resist shock better than
those which do not contain this element do.
8.Titanium- the main use of titanium as an alloying element in
steel is for carbide stabilization.
It combines with carbon to form titanium carbides, which are
quite stable and hard to dissolve in steel
this tends to minimize the occurrence of inter-granular corrosion
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 Contd.
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9.Tungsten- is used as an alloying element in tool steel and

tends to produce a fine, dense grain and keen cutting edge
when used in relatively small quantities.
When used in larger quantities of 17 to 20% and in

combination with other alloys, it produces a high speed

steel which retains its hardness at the high temperatures.
Tungsten is also used in certain heat resisting steel where

the retention of strength at high temperatures is important.

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 Additions of alloying elements in iron-iron carbide
phase diagram
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 The dependence of eutectoid

 The dependence of
eutectoid temperature on alloy
concentration for several
alloying elements in steel
composition (wt% C) on alloy
concentration for several alloying
elements in steel.
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 Classification of steel according to carbon
concentration
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1. Low-Carbon Steels-
generally contain less than about 0.25wt% Carbon and

are unresponsive to heat treatments intended to form martensite

strengthening is accomplished by cold working

Microstructures consist of ferrite and pearlite constituents

are relatively soft and weak but have outstanding ductility and toughness;

 they are machinable, weldable, and, of all steels, are the least expensive to

produce.
typical applications include automobile body components, structural

shapes (I-beams, channel and angle iron), and sheets that are used in
pipelines, buildings, bridges, and tin cans.

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 Contd.
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 t

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 Contd.
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Automobile body, hool.

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 Contd.
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Another group of low-carbon alloys are the high-strength, low-alloy (HSLA)

steels.
contain other alloying elements such as copper, vanadium, nickel, and

molybdenum in combined concentrations as high as 10wt% and possess higher

strengths than the plain low-carbon steels.
strengthened by heat treatment, giving tensile strengths in excess of 480MPa

they are ductile, formable, and machinable.

HSLA steels are more resistant to corrosion at normal atmospheres

have a yield strength of 275MPa, tensile strengths between 415 and 550MPa.

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 Contd.
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2. Medium-Carbon Steels
have carbon concentrations between about 0.25 and 0.60wt%
may be heat treated by austenaitizing, quenching, and then tempering to improve their

mechanical properties.
Plain medium carbon steel have low hardenability

The addition of chromium, nickel, and molybdenum improves the capacity of these

alloys
The heat treated alloys are stronger than the low carbon steel , but they are less ductile

and tough
They are applied in : railway wheels and tracks , gears , crank shaft and other machine

parts and high strength structural components

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 Contd.
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3. High-Carbon Steels
have carbon contents between 0.60 and 1.4wt%, are the hardest, strongest
least ductile of the carbon steels.

They are almost always used in a hardened and tempered condition and, as such, are especially wear

resistant and capable of holding a sharp cutting edge.

The alloying elements like ;Chromium, vanadium, tungsten and molybdenum are employed to enhance the

strength
alloying elements combine with carbon to form very hard and wear-resistant carbide compounds

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 Contd.
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Application of high carbon steel

 As a tool of: drill , lathe and planner

 Punches

 Shear blades

 Pipe cutters

 Concrete drills

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 Contd.
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Stainless Steels
Stainless steels- are highly resistant to corrosion (rusting) in a variety of
environments, especially the ambient atmosphere.
predominant alloying element is chromium (11wt%)

Nickel and molybdenum can also be added to enhance corrosion resistant.

They are used at elevated temperature up to 1000

Oxidation resistant's

There are three classes

a)Martensitic
b)Ferretic
c)Austentic

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 Contd.
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 Martensitic stainless steels

are heat treatable
 Austentic and ferritic stainless
steels are hardened and
strengthen by cold working
 Austenitic stainless steels are
high corrosion resistant
 Feritic and Martensitic
stainless steels are more
magnetic
Composition and Properties of some
stainless steels are given in the next slide

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 Contd.
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 Applications of stainless steel
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 Automotive exhaust components , tanks

 Aircrafts , missiles ,high temperature steam boilers
 Valves for combustion chamber
 Chemical food processing equipment's
 Jet engine parts, rifle barrels
 Surgical tools , bearings
 Springs

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 Tool Steels
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 Refers to a variety of carbon and alloy steels that are particularly

well suited to be made into tools
 Their suitability comes from
 their distinctive hardness
 Resistance to abrasion and deformation
 Ability to hold cutting edge at elevated temperature

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 Maraging Steels
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General Characteristics
 Maraging is a 18% nickel, cobalt strengthened steel (C-type) or (T- type)

with excellent properties, workability and heat treatment characteristics.

 Maraging material is supplied in the annealed and descaled condition.

 The alloy is very tough, relatively soft (RC 30/35), readily machined or

formed.
 Provides a high value for critical parts in aerospace, structural,
component and tooling applications.
 MARtensitic - a very hard form of steel crystalline structure

 Subsequent AGING (precipitation hardening -approx. 3-6 hours @

900ºF yields optimum material characteristics).

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 Contd.
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Advantages Of Maraging
excellent mechanical properties


excellent workability


pitting and corrosion resistance superior to common tool steel



excellent mechanical properties have led to longer tool life



easily reworked and retreated for secondary life



low coefficient of expansion-minimizes heat checking



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 Question
38

 How do we identify steels?

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 END.
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Thank you!
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 Quiz
40

1. Write the difference between basic oxygen

furnace and Bessmerconverter.
2. Define sintering.
3. Write the limitations of ferrous alloys.
4. How do you make malleable iron?
5. Considering the Fe-C phase diagram,
describe the term Eutectoid.
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 Quiz
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1. Ferrite has a BCC crystal structure. Write the advantage

behind.
2. Define coal gasification, and for which iron smelting
technique do we apply?
3. Which type of carbon steel materials are efficient for
holding sharp cutting edges of cutting tool materials and
why?
4. Write the properties of grey iron and its advantage?
5. Among the input materials used for iron smelting by using
blast furnace, write the advantage of limestone.
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