Heat Transfer

Chapter 1

By. Atsede T.
 OUT LINE
INTRODUCTION
 Thermo dynamics and Heat Transfer
 Application area of Heat Transfer
 Engineering Heat Transfer
 Rate of Heat Transfer and Amount of Heat transfer
 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
 Introduction

 From the study of thermodynamics, you have learned that

energy can be transferred by interactions of a system with
its surroundings.
 These interactions are called work and heat.
 However, thermodynamics deals with the end states of the
process during which an interaction occurs and provides no
information concerning the nature of the interaction or the
time rate at which it occurs.
 THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT TRANSFER

 Heat, is the form of energy that can be transferred from one

system to another as a result of temperature difference.
 The science that deals with the determination of the rates of
such energy transfers is Heat transfer.
 Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states and changes
from one equilibrium state to another.
 Heat transfer, on the other hand, deals with systems that lack
thermal equilibrium, and thus it is a non equilibrium
phenomenon.
 The basic requirement for heat transfer is the presence of a
temperature difference. There can be no net heat transfer
between two mediums that are at the same temperature.
 Therefore, the study of heat transfer cannot be based on the
principles of thermodynamics alone. However, the laws of
thermodynamics lay the framework for the science of heat
transfer.
 The first law requires that the rate of energy transfer into a
system be equal to the rate of increase of the energy of that
system.
 The second law requires that heat be transferred in the
direction of decreasing temperature

Fig. Heat flows in the direction of decreasing temperature.

 Application Areas of Heat Transfer
 Heat transfer is commonly encountered in engineering systems and other
aspects of life.
 Many ordinary household appliances are designed, in whole or in part, by using the
principles of heat transfer.
 Some examples include
 The electric or gas range,
 The heating and air-conditioning system,
 The refrigerator and freezer, the water heater, the iron, and
 Even the computer, the TV, and the VCR.
 Of course, Energy-efficient homes are designed on the basis of minimizing heat
loss in winter and heat gain in summer.

 Heat transfer plays a major role in the design of many other devices, such as: car
radiators, solar collectors, various components of power plants, and even
spacecraft.

The optimal insulation thickness in the walls and roofs of the houses, on hot water or
steam pipes, or on water heaters is again determined on the basis of a heat transfer
analysis with economic consideration.
Fig. Some application areas of heat transfer
 ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER
Heat transfer equipment such as heat exchangers, boilers, condensers,
radiators, heaters, furnaces, refrigerators, and solar collectors are
designed primarily on the basis of heat transfer analysis.
The heat transfer problems encountered in practice can be considered in
two groups:
(1) Rating and
(2) Sizing problems.
The Rating problems deal with the determination of the heat transfer rate
for an existing system at a specified temperature difference.
The Sizing problems deal with the determination of the size of a system in
order to transfer heat at a specified rate for a specified temperature
difference.
A heat transfer process or equipment can be studied:
 either experimentally (testing and taking measurements) or
 analytically (by analysis or calculations).
The experimental approach:
 Has the advantage that we deal with the actual physical system,
and the desired quantity is determined by measurement, within
the limits of experimental error.
 However, this approach is expensive, time-consuming, and
often impractical. Besides, the system we are may not even
exist. For example, the size of a heating system of a building
must usually be determined before the building is actually built
on the basis of the dimensions and specifications given.
The analytical approach (including numerical approach):
 Has the advantage that it is fast and inexpensive, but the results
obtained are subject to the accuracy of the assumptions and
idealizations made in the analysis.
 In heat transfer studies, often a good compromise is reached by
reducing the choices to just a few by analysis, and then
verifying the findings experimentally.
 Rate of heat transfer and Amount of heat transfer
 The Amount of heat transferred during the process is denoted
by Q.
 The amount of heat transferred per unit time is called Heat
transfer rate, and is denoted by
 The over dot stands for the time derivative, or “per unit time.”
The heat transfer rate has the unit J/s, which is equivalent
to W.
 When the rate of heat transfer is available, then the total
amount of heat transfer Q during a time interval can be
determined from
 The rate of heat transfer per unit area normal to the direction
of heat transfer is called Heat flux, and the average heat flux
is expressed as:

where A is the heat transfer area.

 HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS
 Heat can be transferred in three different modes:
Conduction,
Convection, and
Radiation.
 All modes of heat transfer require the existence of
temperature difference, and
 All modes are from the high-temperature medium to a lower-
temperature one.
 CONDUCTION
 Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic
particles of a substance to the adjacent less energetic ones as a
result of interactions between the particles.
 Conduction can take place in solids, liquids, or gases.
 In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions and
diffusion of the molecules during their random motion.
 In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the
molecules in a lattice and the energy transport by free
electrons.
 The rate of heat conduction through a medium depends on
 The geometry of the medium, its thickness, and the
material of the medium, as well as the temperature
difference across the medium.
 We know that wrapping a hot water tank with glass wool (an
insulating material) reduces the rate of heat loss from the
tank. The thicker the insulation, the smaller the heat loss.
 The rate of heat conduction through a plane layer is
proportional to the temperature difference across the layer
and the heat transfer area, but is inversely proportional to
the thickness of the layer. That is,

Fig. Heat conduction

through a large plane
wall of thickness x
and area A.
 where the constant of proportionality k is the thermal conductivity
of the material, which is a measure of the ability of a material to
conduct heat.
 In the limiting case of x → 0, the equation above reduces to the
differential form

which is called Fourier’s law of heat conduction

 Here dT/dx is the temperature gradient, which is the slope of the
temperature curve on a T-x diagram (the rate of change of T with
x), at location x.
 Heat is conducted in the direction of decreasing temperature, and
the temperature gradient becomes negative when temperature
decreases with increasing x.
 The heat transfer area A is always normal to the direction of heat
transfer.
 Note that the thickness of the wall has no effect on A`
 Thermal Diffusivity
 Another material property that appears in the transient heat
conduction analysis is the thermal diffusivity, which
represents how fast heat diffuses through a material and is
defined as:

 Note that the thermal conductivity k represents how well a material conducts heat, and
the heat capacity Cp represents how much energy a material stores per unit volume.
 The Thermal diffusivity of a material can be viewed as the ratio of the heat conducted
through the material to the heat stored per unit volume.
 A material that has a high thermal conductivity or a low heat capacity will obviously
have a large thermal diffusivity
 CONVECTION
 Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a solid
surface and the adjacent liquid or gas that is in motion, and it
involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid motion
 The faster the fluid motion, the greater the convection heat
transfer.
 In the absence of any bulk fluid motion, heat transfer between
a solid surface and the adjacent fluid is by pure conduction.
 Convection is called Forced convection if the fluid is forced to
flow over the surface by external means such as a fan, pump,
or the wind.
In contrast,
 convection is called Natural (or free) convection if the fluid
motion is caused by buoyancy forces that are induced by
density differences due to the variation of temperature in the
fluid

Fig. The cooling of a boiled egg by forced and natural convection

 The rate of convection heat transfer is observed to be
proportional to the temperature difference, and is conveniently
expressed by Newton’s law of cooling as:

Where
 h is the convection heat transfer coefficient in W/m2 · °C
 is the surface area through which convection heat transfer
takes place,
 is the surface temperature, and
 is the temperature of the fluid sufficiently far from the
surface.
Note that at the surface, the fluid temperature equals the surface
temperature of the solid.
 The convection heat transfer coefficient h is not a property of
the fluid.
 It is an experimentally determined parameter whose value
depends on all the variables influencing convection such as the
surface geometry, the nature of fluid motion, the properties of
the fluid, and the bulk fluid velocity.
 RADIATION
 Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of
electromagnetic waves (or photons) as a result of the changes
in the electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules.
 Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer of energy by
radiation does not require the presence of an intervening
medium.
 In heat transfer studies we are interested in thermal radiation,
which is the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of
their temperature.
 It differs from other forms of electromagnetic radiation such
as x-rays, gamma rays, microwaves, radio waves, and
television waves that are not related to temperature.
 All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit
thermal radiation.
  The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a
surface at an absolute temperature Ts is given by the Stefan–
Boltzmann law as:

is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant.

 The idealized surface that emits radiation at this maximum rate is called a
blackbody, and
 The radiation emitted by a blackbody is called blackbody radiation.
 The radiation emitted by all real surfaces is less than the radiation emitted
by a blackbody at the same temperature, and is expressed as

where is the emissivity of the surface.

 The property emissivity, whose value is in the range
 Another important radiation property of a surface is its
absorptivity
 which is the fraction of the radiation energy incident on a
surface that is absorbed by the surface. Like emissivity, its
value is in the range
 A blackbody absorbs the entire radiation incident on it. That is,
a blackbody is a perfect absorber as it is a perfect
emitter.
 In general, both and of a surface depend on the temperature
and the wavelength of the radiation.
 Kirchhoff’s law of radiation states that the emissivity and the
absorptivity of a surface at a given temperature and
wavelength are equal.