oToo much on anything is dangerous and too

little may lead to a deficiency.

oSo our bodies are equipped with self-
regulatory system that monitor and regulate
changes of factor within our body.
oThe factors that are controlled in our bodies
are: temperature, Ph., water potential,
glucose concentration and other nutrients.
Oxygen, and excretory waste such as carbon
dioxide and urea.
oThis broad topic of all the above is described
as HOMEOSTASIS.
 IN THIS TOPIC WE WILL FOCUS
ON:
A. Homeostasis and Negative Feedback
control.
B. Temperature regulation.
C. Control of glucose level.
HOMEOSTASIS AND NEGATIVE FEEDBACK CONTROL.
SO: DEFINE AND UNDERSTAND THE IMPORTANCE OF
HOMEOSTASIS

Homeostasis: -Is the maintenance of

constant internal environment
Living organisms have 2 environments
1.External environment: the surrounding of
which the organisms lives. Changes such as
temperature, water, light intensity etc.
2.Internal environment: the space inside your
body. i.e. space between the cells filled with
tissue fluid.
IMPORTANCE OF HOMEOSTASIS
1. A constant temperature of around 37C˚(thermoregulation):
help enzymes to work.
2. A constant amount of water (osmoregulation): prevent
damage of body cells or losing too much water by osmosis.
3. A constant amount of glucose, (90 – 100 mg/100cm3 of
blood): ensure enough fuel for respiration.
4. A constant blood pH at about 7.4: as variation in pH can lead
to denaturation of enzymes.
5. A relative amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide
concentration: shortage of oxygen lowers the metabolic rate
while excess of carbon dioxide increases acidity in the blood.
 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
SO: EXPLAIN THE CONCEPT OF CONTROL BY NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

Negative Feedback
is a controlling mechanism in which a stimuli
causes an opposite effect to maintain the
normal level of the factor being controlled.
Example: controlling temperature, glucose,
water, pH, salts, gases, etc. that rises above or
drops below normal back to normal.
 ALL NEGATIVE FEEDBACK CONTROL
SYSTEM INVOLVES:
1. A stimulus: act as a trigger for the mechanism
2. Receptor: detect the stimulus and send this
information to the control center.
3. The control centre: (the brain) process
information from the receptor, determine the
corrective action required and send message to
the appropriate effectors.
4. The effector: responds by carrying out some
corrective action to bring the factor back to its
normal level.
 ALL NEGATIVE FEEDBACK CONTROL
SYSTEM INVOLVES:

5. Feedback: message from the effector to the

receptor cells about the effectors' corrective
action.
6. Negative feedback: message from receptors
to the effectors to stop or reverse (negative one)
its corrective action to prevent the correction
from going too far in the opposite direction.
This is known as NEGATIVE FEEDBACK.
THE PRINCIPLE OF NEGATIVE
FEEDBACK
4.
Control 5.
e ssage M
3. M center ess
a ge
2. Receptors 8. Negative Feedback

7. Feedback 6. Effectors
Detected by

b in tiv
a
br rec
c g th e a

co
k
t e cti

r
o
n fac on
orm tor to
al
Normal levels of
1. Changed
levels of factor:
factor.

• Too high
• Too low
 NOTE THAT:
This system or principle of negative feedback is
used to regulate all factors in your body such as:
oRegulation of temperature.
oRegulation of glucose(sugar).
oRegulation of water (osmoregulation).
oBlood pressure.
All follow the same procedure. The mechanism
of negative feedback.
 EXAMPLE: NEGATIVE FEEDBACK IS
AN AUTOMATIC REGULATION

Glucose level in blood rise above normal

Information is detected by the part of the brain

Pancreas respond by producing insulin

Stimulate liver to convert glucose to glycogen that is stored in the liver and muscles.

Glucose level back to normal

SO: Describe temperature regulation
in ectothermic and endothermic
animals

ectotherm endotherm
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ECTOTHERMIC
AND ENDOTHERMIC ANIMALS
ENDOTHERMIC
ECTOTHERMIC ANIMALS (COLD ANIMALS(WARM BLOODED
BLOODED ANIMALS) ANIMALS)

1. Rely on heat from the 1. Rely on heat

environment than produced within
heat produced bodies by metabolic
through metabolic reactions (i.e.
reaction to raise respiration) to
their body control their body
temperature (Ecto: temperature. (Endo:
outside/external, inside/internal,
thermal: heat) thermal; heat)
EXOTHERMIC ANIMALS ENDOTHERMIC ANIMALS
(COLD BLOODED (WARM BLOODED
ANIMALS) ANIMALS)
2. Animals are not able 2. Animals are able to
to maintain a relatively maintain a relatively
constant body constant body
temperature within / temperature.
have low metabolic
rates.
Examples: Examples:
Fish, Amphibian, Bird and mammals.
reptiles and
crustaceans.
 WAYS OF REGULATING TEMPERATURE
ECTOTHERMS

In cold weather:
Position themselves to absorb
solar radiation by climbing up
vegetation and stones (bask in
the sun).
Use radiant energy from the sun
to raise their body temperature.
Skin become darker in colour
and absorbs more radiant energy
Goes into hibernation
(the condition of an animal/plant
spending the winter in a dormant
state)
WAYS OF REGULATING TEMPERATURE
ECTOTHERMS

In warm weather:
Escape to places of low
heat(shade, underground
Dune Dance burrow, under stones or water).
The skin become lighter in
colour and more heat is
reflected.
Opening of mouth to lose more
water by evaporation(leading to
cooling).
Aestivation: a state of dormancy
due to dry condition in the
summer.
 WAYS OF REGULATING
TEMPERATURE
ENDOTHERMS

Have higher metabolic Endotherms regulate their

rate and effective temperature in 3 ways:
physiological mechanisms Sweating (when hot).
for controlling to keep it Vasodilation(when hot).
constant.
Vasoconstriction(when
Heat is generated through cold).
cell respiration, high
metabolism and by
muscular contraction.
 REGULATION OF TEMPERATURE
IN HUMANS
Humans are endothermic and maintain a constant body
temperature of around 37C° through heat generation and
heat loss, irrespective of the external environmental
temperature.
HEAT GENERATION IN HUMAN BODY:
Producing a great deal of metabolic heat through
cellular respiration and muscular contraction.
 An increase in thyroxin and adrenalin secretions causes
an increase in metabolic rate which results in faster
respiration and more heat release.
By consuming hot drinks and food or by exposing the
body to heat from the sun, heat can be absorbed from the
environment.
 HEAT LOSS FROM HUMAN BODY:
oRadiation: heat loss from a warm body to a cold
environment.
oEvaporation: is a means of cooling the body.
Heat loss when fluids absorb energy and changes
into a gas. When sweat evaporates, heat is loss.
oConvection: heat is loss in fluids or gasses. Hot
air on the body is warmed by body heat and rises,
making space for cold air to move in. heat is also
transferred from body to cold water (swimming).
oConduction: the transfer of heat from warm
objects to cold objects. i.e. touching a cold object.
THE SKIN: IS THE LARGEST ORGAN
OF THE BODY AND HAS SEVERAL
IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS .
MALPHIGIAN LAYER
 FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN
1. Protects the body from damage.
2. Stops pathogen from entering.
3. Prevents too much water loss.
4. Detects changes in temperature.
5. Detects pressure (touch) and pain.
6. Loss heat by conduction, convection,
radiation and evaporation.
 THE STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN.

Consist of:

1.Outer epidermis.
2.Inner dermis.
3.Subcutaneous
tissue.
THE STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN.
The outer epidermis: - no blood supply, consist
of dead cells.
The inner dermis: - complex with blood
capillaries, sweat glands, hair follicle and hair
erector muscles, and all other structure involved
in regulation heat loss.
Main structures of skin involved in regulating
heat:
oBlood capillaries, the arterioles.
oSweat gland.
oHair.
NOTE BE:
The hypothalamus: detects change in body
temperature as blood flows through it.
Temperature sensors: found in the skin
and detect changes in outside (external)
surrounding body temperature and send
information to the brain.
MECHANISMS THAT
CONTROL BODY
TEMPERATURE IN
ENDOTHERMS
1. WHEN BODY TEMPERATURE INCREASE
ABOVE NORMAL
ABOVE 37OC

The message from the brain

stimulates:
oThe blood Capillaries.
oSweat glands.
oHair.
 A) VASODILATION.
oMuscles around the arterioles in the skin
relax.
oArterioles in the skin dilate and increase in
diameter.
o This results in increased blood flow
through capillaries.
oThis leads to an increase in heat loss by
radiation and convection from the skin.
 B) SWEAT GLAND
Arterioles supplying blood to capillaries surrounding
sweat glands dilate.
More blood flows to the sweat glands.
More sweat is produced.
More heat is lost through evaporation, this cools the
body.
C) HAIR
 The Hair erector muscle relax
This results in hair lowered and flat
(lowered) on the skin, cooling it.
This prevents insulation
 2. WHEN THE BODY
TEMPERATURE DECREASES
BELOW 37 0C
What will happen to:
1. Blood capillaries
2. Sweat glands
3. hair
 A) VASOCONSTRICTION.
oThe muscles round the arterioles contract.
oThe arterioles in the skin constrict and
reduce in diameter: become narrow.
oAs a result, Less blood flows in the
capillaries.
oLess heat reaches the skin surface and less
heat is lost by radiation from the skin.
 B) SWEAT GLAND
Arterioles supply blood to capillaries surrounding
sweat glands constrict.
Less blood flows to the sweat glands.
Less sweat is produced and secreted.
Less heat is lost through evaporation, this cools
the body.
Hair erector muscles h C) HAIR
Hair erector muscle
contact
This results in hair pull
up the skin, causing skin
folding (goose pimples or
goose flesh).
This prevent heat
evaporation and conserve
heat to warm up the body.
Hair trap a layer of warm
air that acts as insulation
against the cold.
 D) SHIVERING
oWhen the external temperatures are low, the
muscles in the arm in the skin start to contract
and relax uncontrollably.
oHeat is therefore generated through respiration
in the muscle cells.
D) EXERCISING (INCREASED MOVEMENT)
oAn increase in exercise or movement increases the rate
of respiration.
oThis generates more heat in the body.
OTHER METHODS THAT GENERATE HEAT AT
LOW TEMPERATURE ARE:
oIncreased metabolic rate by the liver.
oHormones secreted by the adrenal, thyroid and
pituitary glands causes the generation of more
metabolic heat.
oBehavioural response.: huddling( crowd together) to
reduce exposed areas, also cause less heat loss from the
body.
 SUMMARY: THE RESPONSE OF THE SKIN IN TEMPERATURE REGULATION.

WHEN TEMP. FALL: THE SKIN WHEN TEMP. RISE: THE SKIN
REDUCE HEAT LOSS IN 3 WAYS: INCREASES HEAT LOSS IN 3
WAYS

1.Vasoconstriction.
1.Vasodilation.
2.Decrease sweat
production. 2.Increase sweat
3.Raising of hair by production.
contraction of the erector 3.Lowering of hair by
muscles.
relaxation of the hair
4.Shivering erector muscles.
5.OTHERS: Increased
metabolism, hormones,
behavioral response.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
VASODILATION AND
VASOCONSTRICTION
Vasodilation Vasoconstriction
1. Dilation of arterioles 1. Constriction of
in the skin arterioles in the skin
2. More blood flow in 2. Less blood flow in the
the capillaries. capillaries.
3. More heat reaches 3. Less heat reaches the
the skin surface. skin surface.
4. More heat is lost to 4. Less heat is lost to the
the surrounding. surrounding
 OVERHEATING: SKIN OVERCOOLING : SKIN
INCREASE HEAT LOSS DECREASE HEAT LOSS

ARTERIOLES TO SKIN Dilate(vasodilation); Constrict(vasoconstrictio

increase blood supply n); decreased blood
to skin surface; more supply to skin; less heat
heat lost to lost to surrounding.
surrounding
SWEAT PRODUCTION Increase; more heat Less sweat produced; no
lost through heat lost through
evaporation. evaporation.

HAIR ERECTOR Relax; hairs lie flat; Contract; hair raised;

MUSCLES
no insulating layer; thick insulating layer;
more heat lost to less heat lost to
surrounding. surroundings.
SO: DESCRIBE THE
CONTROL OF GLUCOSE
CONTENT OF THE BLOOD BY
THE LIVER AND THE ROLES
OF INSULIN AND GLUCAGON
FROM PANCREAS
 WHY BLOOD GLUCOSE NEEDS TO BE CONTROLLED:

oThe normal glucose concentration in the blood is

90 to 100 mg glucose per 100 cm3 blood.
oHigh glucose level causes the drawn of water
from cells and tissue fluid by osmosis back into
the blood. This leave cells with too little water in
which to perform normal metabolic reactions and
raises the blood pressure.
oLow glucose levels means less energy for normal
cell functions. low glucose also lowers the blood
pressure, causes weakness, dizziness,
unconsciousness and even death.
 TWO ORGANS INVOLVED IN
GLUCOSE REGULATION
1. The liver muscles: act as an effectors
2. The pancreas: act as receptors and
control center (has two receptors that
detect changes in blood glucose levels
located in the Islets of Langerhans )
Two hormones involved:
3. Insulin
4. Glucagon.
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK AND GLUCOSE CONTROL
Liver (effector)
6. Glucose to glycogen
3. Glycogen to glucose

5. Message via 2. Message 1. Low

4. High glucose level
insulin via glucagon glucose level

Pancreas (receptor)
 EXPLANATION
1. LOW GLUCOSE LEVEL :Blood glucose levels fall.
2. The pancreas detects this change and alpha cells of
the islets of Langerhans secrete the hormone glucagon
3. The bloodstream transport hormone glucagon to the
liver.
4. Glucagon stimulates the liver cells to convert glycogen
to glucose.
5. Glucagon decrease the rate of respiration.
6. Adrenaline can also be secreted from adrenal glands to
stimulate the conversion of glycogen to glucose.
7. Blood glucose levels now tend towards the upper limit.
WHEN THE BLOOD SUGAR (GLUCOSE) GO
ABOVE THE LIMIT:
1. The pancreas detects this change and beta cells of
the inlsets of Langerhans secrete the hormone
insulin.
2. The bloodstream transport hormone insulin to the
liver.
3. Insulin stimulates the liver cells to convert excess
glucose to glycogen.
4. Glycogen can be stored in the liver and the muscles.
5. Insulin increase the rate of respiration.
6. Blood glucose levels now tend towards the lower
limit.
DIABETES MELLITUS
 A disorder where Type 1 diabetes
blood glucose is Occurs when the body’s
not kept own immune system
constant incorrectly attacks the
 There are two beta cells of the pancreas.
types of diabetes This results in the
 1. type 1 diabetes pancreas not secreting
insulin
 2. type 2 diabetes
As a result, the liver is
not stimulated to convert
excess glucose to
glycogen.
THE SYMPTOMS OF TYPE 1
DIABETES INCLUDE:
Extreme thirsty (water leaves body due to frequent
urination)
Frequent urination ( usually wet the bed)
Increased hunger
Unexplained weight loss (as a result of glucose(calories)
leaving body via urine)
Mood changes such a increased irritability
Fatigue
Weakness
Blurred vision
 SYMPTOMS CONTINUES
 Glucose appearing in urine (how do we test
for this?)
 Damage to body organs as high glucose can
harm the nerves and capillaries of the eye,
kidneys and heart.
NO CURE FOR TYPE 1 DIABETES, BUT
THE FOLLOWING TREATMENT APPLIES
Monitoring the blood glucose level at certain times with a
blood glucose monitor
Insulin injection
Controlling the amount of carbohydrates, fats and proteins
eaten at each meal
Eating healthy food
Exercising regularly
Maintaining a healthy weight
WAYS TO MONITOR/CONTROL BLOOD
GLUCOSE LEVEL

Blood Glucose monitor to check

glucose level from a prick of the Using an insulin pen to inject insulin into the
finger. (less than 140 mg/dl is skin of the abdomen
normal)
 THE EFFECT OF THE SIZE OF AN
ORGANISM ON HEAT LOSS AND
HEAT GAIN
 Large organisms have small surface area compared to
volume ratio of their whole body.
 Therefore they loose less heat through their skin than they
gain.
 Large organism like elephants therefore suffers from
overheating. They therefore develop adaptations to deal
with overheating, such as:
1. Large thin ears that flap cool air on their skin
2. A lot of blood vessels on the ear that allow a lot of heat to
be loss to the surrounding.
SURFACE AREA TO VOLUME
RATIO
 SMALL ORGANISMS
 Have a large surface area to volume of their whole
body.
 Therefore they loose more heat to the surrounding
than they gain from respiration of their cells
 To maintain a constant temperature, they have high
metabolic rate(high respiration rate to generate
sufficient heat).
 They therefore eat a lot of food to provide them
with fuel needed for rapid respiration rate.
LARGE EARS OF ELEPHANTS
SO: INVESTIGATE THE RATE OF COOLING
OF WARM BODY (REPRESENTED BY
TUBES CONTAINING HOT WATER) UNDER
DIFFERENT CONDITIONS (E.G. LARGE OR
SMALL SURFACE AREA, WITH WET OR
DRY COVERING)
 Do practical experiment on page 256 solid foundation