Aircraft Performance

AERO 3021
ETOPS, Optimum altitude cruise, Cruise thrust limits, Landing performance
Contents

ETOPS, Optimum Altitude Cruise, Cruise Thrust Limits, Landing Performance

– from slide 3

Landing Geometry and Performance – from slide 50

Practice Questions – from slide 99

 Objectives
The objective of this section is to –
• Briefly discuss ETOPS and its regulatory certification
• Discuss optimum cruise altitude and factors affecting its selection
• Discuss cruise thrust limits and how they affect altitude selection
• Introduce landing performance requirements
Need to know Need to do
The definition of ETOPS and regulatory Complete the questions at the end of the slides
requirements surrounding its approval
How the optimal cruise altitude is chosen in the
727
How the maximum cruise altitude is chosen in
the 727
The regulatory requirements for landing
performance
 EXTENDED RANGE TWIN-ENGINE OPERATIONS
(ETOPS)

The term ETOPS describes the operational

restrictions that apply to twin-engine aircraft,
where accept­able aerodromes are spaced a
long distance apart, or off-track
ETOPS is the acronym, established by the
International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO), to
describe the operation of a twin-engine aircraft flying
more than 60 minutes from an Adequate airport.

If not compliant with ETOPS standards then the flight

is limited to 60 minutes, at single engine cruise speed,
from an Adequate airport
The procedure for granting ETOPS approval to modern,
twin-engine, aeroplanes is a compromise/balance between
the acknowledgement of higher risks, of long distance over
water operations, and the demonstrated reliability of
modern turbine engines; supplemented by specific
airworthiness standards.
 Optimum Cruise

• It is best to cruise at, or near, the optimum altitude

for the gross weight and the chosen cruise speed
schedule

• For best range, the aerodynamic aspects of

"optimum altitude" and its relationship to the most
efficient angle of attack, the ratios CL/CD and
TAS/DRAG, are at a maximum.
 Optimum Cruise

• If you cruise at;

•
• Gross Weight too high for the Mach No.
at a specific level - then the angle of attack will
need to be greater to balance the weight

The angle of attack will be greater than the

optimum AoA and total drag will increase as a
result of increased Induced Drag
Optimum Cruise
Optimum Cruise
 Optimum Cruise
At a cruising level lower than the optimum for the Gross
Weight and Mach No. the problem is to match up
aerodynamic (or airframe) efficiency with engine efficiency

At an efficient angle of attack, the engines will be operating

inefficiently (reduced RPM)

If the engines are operating at an efficient rpm (producing

high thrust), then angle of attack will be too low and the
aeroplane will be flying too fast for efficiency
 Maximum Cruise Thrust
To fly at the highest possible altitude, need to set Maximum
Cruise Thrust. - do NOT confuse with Maximum Continuous Thrust
(also MCT but used only for Abnormal Operations)

The maximum level at which an aeroplane can cruise

depends upon:

Gross weight - heavier aeroplane = lower maximum altitude

Mach number (i.e. cruise schedule) - higher Mach No. =

lower altitude, for the same Gross Weight
 Maximum Cruise Thrust
 Outside Air Temperature - the hotter it is, the
lower the air density, and the lower the
maximum altitude capability; as a direct result
of reduction in thrust output from the engines.

 Thrust = Mass x Acceleration (less dense air,
less Mass to accelerate)
 Descent and Landing
• As in the case of take-off performance, the Flight Manual will specify a
Max Landing Weight (MLW), which is determined by structural
considerations.

• However, restrictions in landing distance available (LDA) and/or hot

temperature may limit Landing Weight to a value well below the MLW.

• If the MLW is restricted by performance limitations, this would restrict

the amount of payload and/or fuel we carry on departure; which would
impact the ZFW and TOW.
•
• This is a pre-flight planning consideration.
 Landing Performance Limitations

There may also be restrictions to the Landing

Weight, imposed by runway pavement
strength considerations and brake energy
absorption limits
 LANDING WEIGHT – Approach/Landing Climb Limitation
• Part 121 MOS Section 9.12 and FAR 25 detail requirements regarding the
climb following a missed approach (go-around).

Approach Climb - allows for a missed approach where the go-around must be
flown with the aircraft in the approach flap configuration, with landing gear
retracted. The steady gradient may not be less than:

2.1% for 2 engine aircraft

2.4% for 3 engine aircraft
2.7% for 4 engine aircraft

Landing Climb - charts are calculated for go-around with the aircraft in the landing
configuration, with all engines operating and landing gear extended. FAR 25.119
requires the steady climb gradient to be not less than 3.2%
Operationally these weights allow you to execute a missed approach in most
configurations. In some aircraft you will find that one of these limitations is always
more restrictive, therefore you will only see one chart.

However, some procedures may require steeper gradients due to terrain or

obstacles.

The gradient requirements in a missed approach, with the critical engine

inoperative, is detailed in section 9.04 (jets) and 9.08J (propeller aircraft MTOW
between 3500kg – 5700kg)

Before committing to an approach, the crew must ensure that the landing weight,
for the ambient conditions, would allow the aircraft’s performance to meet those
requirements.
PERFORMANCE – Lift and Drag
PERFORMANCE – Landing Distance
Required
The amount of runway required for landing is
based on the aeroplane being at 50 ft height
at the start of the landing distance available
(LDA) .
PERFORMANCE – Landing Distance Required

The LDA commences at 50’above the threshold (the

50 ft point) and includes the full length of the runway,
but not the stopway.

If an obstacle exists in the approach area, a displaced

threshold will be provided. The LDA will then
commence at the displaced threshold.
 Objectives
The objective of this section is to –
• Briefly discuss ETOPS and its regulatory certification
• Discuss optimum cruise altitude and factors affecting its selection
• Discuss cruise thrust limits and how they affect altitude selection
• Introduce landing performance requirements
Need to know Need to do
The definition of ETOPS and regulatory Complete the questions at the end of the slides
requirements surrounding its approval
How the optimal cruise altitude is chosen in the
727
How the maximum cruise altitude is chosen in
the 727
The regulatory requirements for landing
performance
 Aircraft Performance
AERO 3021
Landing geometry and performance
 Objectives
The objective of this section is to –
• Discuss landing performance and geometry
• Introduce and discuss the concept of VREF
• Discuss the additives made to VREF to compensate for wind and wind gusts on
approach
• Introduce and discuss landing performance calculations
• Introduce and discuss quick turnaround timing calculations

Need to know Need to do

The theoretical flight path and geometry for a Complete the questions at the end of the slides
transport category aircraft
The definition of VREF and how it is derived
The adjustments made to VREF during
approach to compensate for wind
The general methodology for calculating
landing and quick turnaround performance
OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
The Approach Path

Flight Manual landing distances are based on the

aeroplane crossing the start of the LDA at 50 ft
(lowest part of the aeroplane), on a 3° glide path

Using the 1-in-60 rule, the planned touchdown

point will be just under 1,000 ft in from the
beginning of the LDA
 LANDING TECHNIQUE
After crossing the threshold (beginning of the Landing
Distance Available (LDA) at 50ft, the aircraft is flown
through the flare to touchdown at 1,000ft further in
from the beginning of the LDA

Speed passing the 50ft point should be VREF, which is

defined as 1.3 Vs

The approach phase is normally flown with an additive

to VREF of 5kts (nil or light wind) and called “Approach
Speed” or VAPP
OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
The term VAT (Indicated airspeed at threshold) instead
of VREF, which has exactly the same meaning as VREF
and is related to the actual LW

VAT is also used in AIP DAPS (Departure and

Approach Procedures) for defining aircraft
performance categories (Cat A, B, C, D and E). In this
context, VAT is slightly different, since it is based on 1.3
Vs in the landing configuration at maximum landing
weight
OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
In gusty wind conditions, additions are made to VREF
(add half the steady wind and all the gust factor to VREF)

E.g. If the wind is “20kt gusting 30kt”

 Steady wind factor is 20kt
 Gust factor is 10kt
Addition to VREF would be;
10kt (half the steady wind)
10kt (all the gust)

The maximum wind correction is 20 Kts above Vref.

OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
Excessive speed (VREF ) over the threshold will
significantly increase LDR because of the significant
increase in kinetic energy with only a small speed
increase; landing performance is based on stopping
distance with a maximum threshold speed of Vref +20

High landing speeds can also prolong the flare phase,

which will result in touchdown well beyond the 1,000
ft point.
OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
Seating position in heavy jet aircraft is extremely
important

Seats have many adjustments, the most critical being

the height adjustment

Correct seating height will ensure correct field of

vision, which is imperative for decision making in low
visibility approaches and for perspective in normal
operations
OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
SYSTEM UNSERVICEABILITIES

Unserviceable systems that affect the braking

performance of the aeroplane require additions to the
LDR; which could result in a decrease to the MLW limit
on shorter runways.

Two systems that directly affect braking performance

are:
 Ground Spoilers
 Anti-skid System
 (Quick Turnaround)
If a ‘quick turnaround’ is planned after landing, (e.g. to
offload freight, pax stay on board and no refuelling)

A check must be made on the maximum ‘quick

turnaround weight’ for landing, to ensure that it was
not less than the maximum permissible landing weight

This takes account of reduced brake efficiency should

it be necessary to reject the subsequent take-off while
the brakes are still very hot, following the ‘quick
turnaround’
The Landing charts for runway limitation, climb
limitation and quick turnaround, all come with
varying flap settings. Make sure to select the
correct one

The runway limitation weight can be increased

by using the next higher stage of flap; but this
will increase the obstacle climb gradient after
takeoff
The Landing climb charts cover:

1. Missed approach with all-engines operating in the

landing flap configuration
2. Missed approach with one engine inoperative in the
approach flap configuration
 Review Questions
1. The first segment for Take Off
Performance criteria ends where?
35 feet, gear fully retracted

What defines the acceleration segment

following Engine Failure At Take Off
(EFATO)?
Second segment at 400ft AAL, or higher as
required for obstacle clearance
 Review Questions
5. During a take off straight ahead (no turn) by
what amount must all obstacles be cleared?
35 feet

What is the minimum NET second segment climb

gradient after take off, required by a twin engine
aircraft (not in the “Commuter” category) with the
critical engine inoperative and the gear fully
retracted?
Twin engine: 2.4% gross – 0.8% correction = 1.6%
net. (Part 121 MOS sections 9.04 and 9.05)
 Review Questions
Nil wind Vref40 for a particular landing operation is 130kts. Company
policy with wind and gusts is to add to the calculated Vref, half of the
steady wind and all of the gust up to a maximum of 20kts
ATIS info: Rwy 15, wind 150/20 Gusting 30

Half the steady wind is 10kts

The gust is 10kts (30-20 = 10)
VREF correction would be 10 + 10 = 20kts

If the wind is now 150/20 gusting 50, half the steady wind is
10kts, the gust is 30kts (50-20 = 30)
VREF correction would be 10 + 30 = 40kts

However, maximum allowed addition is 20kts, therefore approach

speed will be VREF+20
Practice Question
Question: What is VREF speed in relation to Vs?
Practice Question
Question: What is VREF speed in relation to Vs?

Answer: VREF is 1.3Vs

On final approach, 5 knots is usually added to VREF (VREF + 5) to

form the approach speed. This additive is held until crossing the
threshold, and is bled off just before touchdown.
Practice Question
Question:

An ideal landing crosses the threshold (piano keys) at 50 feet AGL and
touchdown at 1,000 feet past the threshold on a 3-degree glidepath.

One day, you fly a slightly high approach, crossing the threshold at 100
feet AGL on a 3-degree glidepath.

At what distance past the threshold would you expect to touchdown?

 Practice Question
Question: An ideal landing involves crossing the threshold (piano keys)
at 50 feet AGL and touchdown at 1,000 feet past the threshold on a 3-
degree glidepath. One day, you fly a slightly high approach, crossing
the threshold at 100 feet AGL on a 3-degree glidepath. At what distance
past the threshold would you expect to touchdown?

Answer: 2,000 feet past the threshold

1-in-60 rule: touchdown point / 60 = TCH / 3

TCH 50 feet AGL

3 deg TCH
Runway Threshold 100 feet AGL
Touchdown point
1000 feet 3 deg

Touchdown point Runway Threshold

2000 feet
Practice Question
Question: You are landing at RWY 34 at MELBOURNE. Wind on the
ATIS is reported as 340/16G28. What would be the addition made to
VREF speed?
Practice Question
Question: You are landing at RWY 34 at MELBOURNE. Wind on the
ATIS is reported as 340/16G28. What would be the addition made to
VREF speed?

Answer: 20 knots

In gusty wind conditions, additions to VREF are made using half the
steady wind and all the gust. The steady wind is 16 knots, so half would
be 8 knots. The gust factor is 12 knots (difference between the steady
wind of 16 knots and the peak gust of 28 knots). 8 + 12 = 20 knots.
Remember that gust corrections are made up to a maximum of 20
knots only. 
 Objectives
The objective of this section is to –
• Discuss landing performance and geometry
• Introduce and discuss the concept of VREF
• Discuss the additives made to VREF to compensate for wind and wind gusts on
approach
• Introduce and discuss landing performance calculations
• Introduce and discuss quick turnaround timing calculations

Need to know Need to do

The theoretical flight path and geometry for a Complete the questions at the end of the slides
transport category aircraft
The definition of VREF and how it is derived
The adjustments made to VREF during
approach to compensate for wind
The general methodology for calculating
landing and quick turnaround performance
The End
Question 1
Part 121 MOS refers. At the preflight planning stage, what additional
factor is applied to the dry LDR at the destination/alternate, if the
forecast indicates there is a possibility that the runways may be wet at
the planned arrival time?

A. 15%
B. 85%
C. 20%
D. 60% for turboprops and 70% for jets
Question 2
Part 121 MOS refers. Assuming the absence of any specific
requirements, what is the minimum climb gradient required for a missed
approach in a turbojet with all engines operating?

A. Positive slope
B. 3.2%
C. 2.5%
D. 6.0%
Question 3
Reverse thrust is most effective –

A. Equally throughout the landing roll

B. Between threshold crossing height and touchdown
C. During the late stages of the landing roll
D. Just after touchdown
Question 4
‘VREF’ is –

A. The engine failure speed

B. The minimum liftoff speed
C. The speed for approach, which varies with landing flap selection
D. The speed for approach, which does not vary with landing flap
selection