Immanuel Kant’s central idea was that the solar system began as a cloud

of dispersed particles. He assumed that the mutual gravitational

attractions of the particles caused them to start moving and colliding, at
which point chemical forces kept them bonded together.

His model does not account for

planets moving around the Sun
in the same direction and in the
same plane, as they are
observed to do, nor does it
explain the revolution of
planetary satellites.
Laplace’s model begins with the Sun already formed and rotating and its
atmosphere extending beyond the distance at which the farthest planet would be
created. Knowing nothing about the source of energy in stars, Laplace assumed that
the Sun would start to cool as it radiated away its heat. In response to this cooling,
as the pressure exerted by its gases declined, the Sun would contract.
Comte de Buffon
 The proponents of the Big Bang Theory were Alexander
Friedmann and Georges Lamaitre in 1920.

• According to the big bang theory, the universe was once very small and
very hot, and then it expanded over the time until it reached its peak (which
may be perceived as a massive explosion for some) around 13.7 billion
years ago (considered the age of the universe).
• The big bang model also asserts that second after the explosion, the
surrounding were at a high temperature of about 10 billion degrees
Fahrenheit (5.5 billion Celsius) with aggregates of fundamental particles
such as neutrons, electrons, and protons.
• As the universe cooled in later phases, these particles either combined with
each other or decayed. The universe was also said to continue to expand
over the next 13 billion years until the present.
 Why Is The "Solar Nebular Disk Model" Believable?

A model of solar system formation must take into

account the following confirmed facts:
• All the orbits of the planets revolve in a counter-clockwise
direction and all the planets (except Pluto) have orbital
planes that are in the same central plane within six degrees.

• The inner planets are dense, rocky and small, while the outer
planets are gaseous and large.
 Evidence supporting the Solar Nebular Disk Model (SNDM)
is as follows:

1. All the planets orbit the sun in the

same direction and in the same plane.
Most of their moons also orbit in the
same direction. This would be as
expected if they all formed from a thin
disk of debris rotating rapidly around a
proto-sun as the SNDM specifies.
 Evidence supporting the Solar Nebular Disk Model (SNDM)
is as follows:
2. The planets also have the right
characteristics to have formed from a disk of
mainly hydrogen around a young, hot sun.
The inner planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth,
and Mars) have very little hydrogen in them
as the disk would have been far too hot for
hydrogen to condense when they formed.
Even if the inner planets had hydrogen and
helium, their proximity to the sun would
have heated up the gases and caused them to
escape.
 Evidence supporting the Solar Nebular Disk Model (SNDM)
is as follows:

The outer planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and

Neptune) are mainly hydrogen, since hydrogen
was the main component of the disk. The outer
planets are much more massive because there was
so much more material in the outer rings of the
disk. The larger outer planets are beyond the
"frost line" which made them icy, cold and
gaseous as opposed to rocky and small like the
inner planets.
 Evidence supporting the Solar Nebular Disk Model (SNDM)
is as follows:
There are also five dwarf planets
orbiting the Sun ( Pluto, Ceres, Eris,
Haumea, and Makemake). Pluto was
added to the list of dwarf planets in
2006, based on the fact that its mass is
smaller than Eris, one of the dwarf
planets. (Some astronomers believe
that Pluto should belong to the comet
family because it is so small.)