ROOT & TUBER CROPS

• Root and tuber crops are plants yielding starchy roots, tubers, rhizomes, corms, and
stems.
• They are used mainly for human food (as such or in processed form), animal feed, and
for manufacturing starch, alcohol, and fermented beverages including beer.
• Many of the developing world's poorest producers and the most undernourished
households depend on root and tuber crops as an important source of food and
nutrition (Scott et al., 2000).
• Root and tuber crops produce large quantities of energy per day, in comparison with
cereals.
• They have been playing more and more important roles in global food and energy
security.
• The major root and tuber crops – potato, sweet potato, cassava, and yam – occupy
approximately 53.93 million hectares worldwide and produce 736.747 million tonnes
annually (FAO, 2008).
• Individually, potato, sweet potato, cassava, and yam rank among the most
important food crops worldwide in terms of annual volume of production.
ROOT TUBER

Plants form tubers on their

roots, which do not produce
shoots but are used only for
storing food.
TUBER

A tuber is a fleshy storage organ

formed from either a stem or
root.

A potato tuber is formed at the

end of the underground stem,
and can produce new shoots
from eyes or buds on its
surface.
BULB

A bulb is an underground
storage organ formed from
the plant stem and leaves

New bulbs are formed around

the base of the old bulb.
These baby bulbs are called
bulblets
CORM

A corm is an underground storage

organ formed from the plant stem.

A corm is a mass of solid tissue,

without separate fleshy scales as in a
bulb, although there is usually a dry
papery tunic formed of modified leaves.
RHIZOME

A rhizome is a swollen stem bearing leaves and roots, which grows

horizontally on or just below the surface.
• Root crops are rich in starch, but low in
protein & oil  thus, excellent source of
calories

• Some consumed as major staples: cassava

(Manihot esculenta Crantz), potatoes
(Solanum spp.) , sweet potatoes (Ipomoea
batatas L.), yams (Dioscorea spp.) &
edible aroids (Colocasia spp. and
Xanthosoma sagittifolium)

• Other plants : carrots, onions,

garlic, parsnips are used as
vegetables
Production of Root & Tuber Crops
• Particularly high in the humid tropics & those
sub-tropics, which are not suitable for cereal
production
The Role of Roots and Tubers in
Nutrition
• Root & tuber crops are second only in
importance to cereals as global source of
carbohydrates
• Also provides some minerals & vitamins but may
destroy during processing..(cassava)

http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5032e/x5032E02.htm
General Characteristics of Root and
Tuber Crops
• The importance of root and tuber crops as staple
foods is because of their particular agronomic
advantages:
▫ they are well adapted to diverse soil and
environmental conditions and a wide variety of
farming systems;
▫ they are highly efficient of edible carbohydrates
when compared to other food crops
General characteristics of roots & tubers compared with cereals

Cereals and oil seeds Roots and tubers

Low moisture content, typically 10% to
15%
Hard texture
Stable, natural shelf life is several years
Losses usually caused by moulds,
insects and rodents
High moisture content, typically 70% to
80%
Soft texture, easily bruised
Perishable, natural shelf life is a few
days to few months
Losses usually caused by rotting
(bacteria and fungi), senescence,
sprouting and bruising
CASSAVA
• Almost entirely produced & consumed in
developing countries
• Highly productive, tolerant of poor soils, period
of drought, & relatively disease free and pest
resistant
General Morphology & Composition of
Cassava Root
• Starchy root, which matures to harvest within 8
– 24 months of planting, depending on cultivar
& climates
• A mature cassava root:
▫ 15 – 100 cm in length,
▫ 0.5 – 2.0 kg in weight,
▫ Subject to variety & growing condition
• Generally fattest at the proximal end & tapers
gently towards the distal end
General view of cassava root
• Cassava root consist of 3 principle areas
▫ The periderm
 The outermost layer
 Composed mostly of dead cork cells

▫ The cortex
 A layer 1 to 2 mm thick
 Located immediately beneath the periderm

▫ The starchy flesh

 The central point of the root
 consisting mainly of parenchyma cells packed with
starch grains
Chemical Composition of Cassava
water 62% fibre 1-2%
carbohydrate 35% minerals 1%
protein 1-2% fat 3%
The problems of cyanogenic
glycosides in cassava
• Cassava roots & leaves contain cyanides in two
different forms:
▫ (i) the glycosides: linamarin & lotaustraline which
are considered “bound”
▫ (ii) the non-glycosides: hydrogen cyanide (HCN)
& cyanohydride which are considered “free”
• Free cyanide – 8 – 12% of the total tuber cyanide
• Cyanide  lead to human toxicity & need to be
processed to remove cyanide-containing
substances
• Little information on the effects of processing on
cassava toxicity & its significance for humans
• “sweet”  usually considered as low in cyanide;
“bitter” high in cyanide
• However, direct correlation between toxicity &
taste
• Cyanide level (6 – 370 mg/kg) depending on the
particular cultivar, growing conditions (soil type,
humidity, temperature) & the age of plant
• Highest in the peels & cortex layer, thus usually
removed before being processed
• HCN soluble in water  can be removed by
soaking & boiling
YAMS
• Many varieties:
▫ White Yam
 Originated in Africa & is the most widely
grown & preferred yam species
▫ Yellow Yam
▫ Water Yam
 Originated from South East Asia & is
second only to white yam
▫ Bitter Yam
General morphology & composition of
the Yam tuber
• The tuber shape & size can vary greatly due to
genetic & environmental factors
• More or less cylindrical in shape & 3 – 5 kg in
weight
Chemical Composition
Variety Moisture Carbohydrate Fats Crude
content Protein
D. alata 65 - 73 22 - 29 0.1 - 0.3 1.1 -2.8
(water yam)
D. rotunda 58 - 80 15 - 23 0.1 - 0.2 1.1 -2.0
(white yam)
D. cayenensis
(yellow yam)
• Mature yam tuber composed of 4 layers:
▫ Corky periderm:
 Outer portion of the yam tuber
 Is a thick layer of cork cells, often cracked, but which
provides an effective barrier against water loss & invasion
by pathogens
▫ Cortex:
 A layer located immediately beneath the cork, comprising
thin-walled cells with very little stored starch
▫ Meristematic layer:
 Elongated thin-walled cells under the cortex
 Sprouts are initiated from this layer
▫ Ground tissue:
 The central portion of the tuber
 Composed of thick-walled starchy cells
General morphology and cross section of yam tuber
SWEET POTATO
• A crop with a significantly
unrealised potential
• Originated in Central America
• China is the world’s largest producer of sweet
potato with 105 million tons in 1993, (80% of total
world production)
• Sweet potato has the shortest growing cycle of the
root crops grown in the tropics
• Normally harvested when the vines & leaves have
turned yellow (4 months after planting)
General morphology & composition
• A single plant may produce 40 – 50 tubers
ranging in length from a few to 30 cm
• May be spindle-shaped or spherical & weight
from 100 g to 1 kg
• The skin & flesh may range from almost pure
white through cream, yellow, orange & pink, to a
very deep purple
• The chemical composition varies greatly
according to genetic & environmental factors
General Chemical Composition
Constituent Percent or (mg/100g)
Moisture 50 - 81
Protein 1.0 - 2.4
Fat 1.8 - 6.4
Starch 8.0 - 29
Non-starch Carbohydrates 0.5 - 7.5
Reducing Sugar 0.5 - 7.5
Ash 0.9 - 1.4
Carotene (average) 4 mg /100 g
Thiamine 0.10 mg /100 g
Ascorbic Acid 25g /100 g
Riboflavin 0.06 mg /100 g
POTATO
• Originated in highland tropical areas of South
America
• In the tropics, potatoes are harvested about 4
months after planting  results in higher yield
• Temperate climates  6 months after planting
• Must be harvested until they are fully mature, at
which stage the skin of the tuber is well set & be
less prone to damage during harvesting
General morphology & composition of the
potato tuber
• Potato  is basically a swollen stem mainly composed of
water (80%)
• Consist of 4 distinguishable areas:
▫ Skin or periderm
 Usually thicker at the stem than at the bud end although the total
skin thickness can vary substantially depending on variety &
growing conditions
 Potato eyes  also present at the periderm surface
▫ Parenchyma tissue
 Composed of cells of the cortex & the perimedullary zone
 Major part of the tuber & contains starch
grains
▫ The ring of vascular bundles
 Known as xylem
▫ The medullar rays and medulla
 Known as pith
Diagram of a longitudinal section of a potato tuber
Chemical Composition
• Very variable & is greatly influenced by variety,
environment & farming practices
• Starch constitutes 65% to 80% of the dry weight
of the tuber
• Also important source of protein, iron, riboflavin
& ascorbic acid
Average constituents of Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.)

Constituents Percentage (wb)

Moisture 50 - 81
Protein 1.0 - 2.4
Fat 1.8 - 6.4
Starch 8 - 29
Non-starch Carbohydrates 0.5 - 7.5
Reducing Sugar 0.5 - 2.5
Ash 0.9 -1.4
Carotene (average) 4 mg /100 g
Thiamine 0.10 mg /100 g
Riboflavin 0.06 mg /100 g
Ascorbic Acid 12 mg /100 g
Glycoalkaloids in potato
• When potato tubers are exposed to light during
harvesting, handling & marketing, a green colour
will develop in the periderm & in outer
parenchyma cells of the cortex  caused a bitter
taste
• The highest level of glycoalkaloids are found in
the periderm and cortex; hence about 60% will
be removed by peeling
EDIBLE AROIDS
• Colocasia esculenta (commonly known as taro)
& Xanthosoma sagittifolium (Tannia) are the
most important of edible aroids
taro
Tannia (keladi telur)
General view of a taro corm (FAO, 1987)
Chemical composition of Taro &
Tannia (% wet basis)

Constituent Taro Tania

Moisture 63 - 85 70 - 77
Carbohydrates 13 - 29 17 - 26
Protein 1.2 - 3.0 1.3 - 3.7
Fat 0.16 - 1.18 0.2- 0.4
Crude fibre 0.60 - 1.18 0.6 - 1.9
Ash 0.60 -1.3 0.6 -1 .3
FACTORS AFFECTING STORABILITY OF
ROOTS & TUBERS
• (1) Mechanical damage

• (2) Physiological changes within plant

• (3) infection by decay organisms & pest

infestation
 Factor Mechanism Stage Affected Resulting Loss

Mechanical Rupture Harvest Moisture loss

Bruising Harvest, Transport, Storage Access to pests and diseases

Crushing Transport, Storage Total loss

Physiological Transpiration All stages before processing Water loss

Respiration Dry matter loss

Sun scorch In field after lifting Tissue degradation

Greening Toxins (potatoes)

Chilling Cold storage Loss of palatability

Inversion of starch End of dormancy Increased transpiration and

respiration
Sprouting Storage
Pathogenic Necrosis and tissue Pre-harvest Partial to complete loss
bacteria & degradation
fungi
Storage Downgrading
Insect Boring & Chewing Pre-harvest Partial loss
infestation
Storage (fresh or processed Access for decay organisms
products)
Rodent & Chewing Pre-harvest Partial loss
bird damage
Pecking Storage Access for decay organisms
Mechanical Damage
• Skin  barrier against most potentially invading
bacteria & fungi causing rotting of the tissue

• Any rupture & injury  stimulate physiological

deterioration & dehydration
Physiological Factors
• (1) Respiration
• (2) Transpiration or evaporation of water from
tubers
• (3) Dormancy & sprouting
• (4) pathological factors
• (5) Attacks by pest
• (6) Damage by extremes of temperature
Respiration
• Results in oxidation of starch & converts it into
water, CO2 & heat energy
• Need O2
• Respiration rate = CO2 per kg of tuber per hour
Transpiration
• Water loss through skin pores of tuber
• Influenced by:
▫ (1) Temperature
▫ (2) Relative humidity
▫ (3) The rate of air movement surrounding the
tuber
▫ (4) The permeability of the skin
Dormancy & Sprouting
• Dormancy = period of reduced
endogenous metabolic activity
during which tuber shows no
intrinsic or bud growth
• Yam, cocoyam, potato, sweet
potato  propagate vegetatively ;
dormancy = at the end of their
growth period
• Cassava root  not
propagation  no dormancy & it
senescens soon after harvesting
Pathological Factors
• By microorganisms, fungi, bacteria & viruses
• Diseases
Bacterial Ring Rot of Potatoes
Potato blight is caused by a
fungus (Phytophthora
infestans)
Attack by Pests
• Insect
• Nematodes
• Rodents, birds, & other animals

http://www.dmoz.org/Science/Agriculture/Field_Crops/Root_Crops/Potato/Pests_and_Diseases/
 Ditylenchus dipsaci on root-rot damage of sugar beets

Kühnhold, V., Sikora, R.A., Kiewnick, S. 2004. Poster presentation: 5th European Conference on Precision Agriculture
(ECPA) in Uppsala, Sweden: The effect of temporal and spatial distribution of Ditylenchus dipsaci on root-rot damage of
sugar beets
Potato Flea Beetles

1. Appear as a number of
"shots" in the leaflet
2. Damage tissue
3. Potato flea beetle larvae
feed on potato tubers.
4. Damage is either small
holes or tunnels on the
surface of the tubers.
PRINCIPLES OF STORAGE FOR ROOTS &
TUBERS
• (1) Control of Mechanical Damage
• (2) Control of Temperature
• (3) Control of Sprouting
• (4) Control of the Spread of Diseases
• (5) Control of Damage Caused by Insects
• (6) Control of Nematodes
PROCESSING OF ROOTS AND TUBERS
• Processing of cassava
▫ Dry products
 Chips, gari, farinha, cassava bread
 Less time-consuming to produce & the most
practical form, with longer shelf life
▫ Moist products
 Attieke, chikwangue, batons
 Take longer to prepare & shelf life is relatively short
 Name of Country Aspect of the product Length of
Product storage
Chips Nigeria Small pieces of sun-dried cassava sometimes fermented, and Several months
Cameroon marketed before being ground into flour. The flour is mixed into
Benin Togo paste with hot water to form a thick, sticky mass known as "fufu" in
Ghana West Africa or "ugali" in East Africa.
Gari Nigeria A dry fermented and gelatinized coarse meal. It is mixed into a paste Can be stored
Ghana, with hot or cold water and eaten with soups or stews. Also used as for up to 2 years
Togo, Benin, snack when mixed with milk and sugar. if kept below
Cameroon 12% mc
Farinha Brazil A yellowish coarse meal very similar to gari. It is used in many Several months
Brazilian dishes, especially in the north-east region. or if kept dry for
up to 2 years
Attieke Côte d'Ivoire Attieke resembles wet "cuscus". A fermented, pre-gelatinized meal 3 to 4 days
generally consumed with milk or meat and vegetables. It swells much
less than gari and farinha.
Cassava Haiti, A white, flat, circular, light textured bread baked from moist cassava One week
bread Dominica pulp. Thickness varies from 1 to 5 mm and diameter from 10 to 90
Rep. cm. Called casabe in Spanish, cassava in French and beiju in
Venezuela,. Portuguese
Chicouangue Congo Zaire A pre-gelatinized cassava paste usually in the form of balls wrapped 3 to 4 days
Central in leaves.
African Rep. In Congo and Zaire chicouangue is steamed before being sold.
Baton Cameroon Basically a fermented and pounded cassava mash but with wide Few weeks
Congo Zaire regional variation Often shaped as 30-50 cm long and 2 to 4 cm
Gabon diameter sticks. They are tied in leaves for cooking, they may be eaten
alone or with a side dish.
Fufu Cameroon The name used for the paste made from cassava starch, flour and 3 to 4 days
Congo Zaire grated roots.