DNA & RNA

STRUCTURE
 Nucleotides
● The nucleic acids DNA and RNA are polymers of
nucleotides.
● Nucleotides consist of three parts:
○ Sugar has five carbon atoms meaning it a pentose
sugar
○ a phosphate group, acidic, negatively-charged
part of nucleic acids
○ base that contains nitrogen and has either one or
two rings of atoms in it’s structure
● ​Both the phosphate group and nitrogenous base are
attached to the central pentose sugar
● The four different nucleotides can be linked together in
any sequence because the phosphate and sugar used to
link them are the same in every nucleotide. Any base
sequence is possinle along a DNA or RNA molecule.
● This is the key to nucleic acids acting as a store of
genetic information. Base sequence = store of
information. Sugar phosphate backbone = ensures that
the store is stable and secure
 Nucleic Acid

● There are two types of nucleic acids present in cells – DNA and RNA
● DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a more stable double stranded form that stores the genetic
blueprint for cells
● RNA (ribonucleic acid) is a more versatile single stranded form that transfers the genetic
information for decoding
DNA BONDS
 Key points

● Each polynucleotide chain (strand) consists of a chain of nucleotides bonded covalently.

● Two polynucleotide chains of DNA are held together by hydrogen bonds between complementary
base pairs:
● Adenine pairs with thymine (A=T) via two hydrogen bonds
● Guanine pairs with cytosine (G=C) via three hydrogen bonds
● In order for bases to be facing each other and thus able to pair, the two strands must run in
opposite directions (i.e. they are anti-parallel)
● As the polynucleotide chain lengthens, the atoms that make up the molecule will arrange
themselves in an optimal energy configuration. This position of least resistance results in the
double-stranded DNA twisting to form a double helix with approximately 10 - 15 bases per twist.
DNA REPLICATION
 Relication

DNA replication is a semi-conservative process, because when a new double-stranded DNA molecule is
formed:
● One strand will be from the original template molecule
● One strand will be newly synthesisd
● When a cell is preparing to divide, the two strands of the double helix separate. The new strands
are used as a guide or template for the creation of a new strand.
● New strands are formed by adding nucleotides, one by one, and linking them together
● The results of this process is 2 DNA molecules, both made up of the original strand and a newly
synthesized strand.
● Therefore DNA replication is referred to as being semi-conservative.
The base sequence on the template strand determines the base sequence on the new strand, only a nucleotide carrying a
base that is complementary to the next base on the template strand can successfully be added to the new strand.
​
Since complementary bases form hydrogen bonds with each, stabilizing the structure, if a nucleotide with the wrong base
started to be inserted, the hydrogen bond would not happen and the nucleotide would not be added to the chain
Rule – one base always pairs with another is called complementary base pairing.This makes sure that the two DNA
molecules that are created by DNA replication are identical in their base sequences to the parent molecule that was
replicated.
Transcriptions &
Translation
01.
Transcription
Transcription is the synthesis of mRNA copied from the DNA
base sequence by RNA polymerase
 Gene
● Sequence of bases in a gene does not, in itself, give any observable
characteristic in an organism.
● Function of most genes is to specify the sequence of amino acids in a
particular polypeptide – it is proteins that are often directly or indirectly
determine the observable characteristics of an individual.
● Two processes are needed to produce a specific polypeptide, using the base
sequence of a gene
● The sequence of DNA that is transcribed into RNA is called a gene
● The strand that is transcribed is called the antisense strand and is
complementary to the RNA sequence
● The strand that is not transcribed is called the sense strand and is identical to
the RNA sequence (with T instead of U)
● Transcription of genes occur in the nucleus (where DNA is), before the RNA
moves to the cytoplasm (for translation)
 The Role of RNA Polymerase in Transcription

■ Transcription is the process by which an RNA sequence

is produced from a DNA template
■ RNA polymerase separates the DNA strands and
synthesises a complementary RNA copy from one of
the DNA strands
■ When the DNA strands are separated, ribonucleoside
triphosphates align opposite their exposed
complementary base partner
■ RNA polymerase removes the additional phosphate
groups and uses the energy from this cleavage to
covalently join the nucleotide to the growing sequence
■ Once the RNA sequence has been synthesised, RNA
polymerase detaches from the DNA molecule and the
double helix reforms
02.
Translation
Translation is the synthesis of polypeptides on ribosomes
 Overview
Translation is the process of protein synthesis in which the genetic information encoded in
mRNA is translated into a sequence of amino acids on a polypeptide chain

● Ribosomes bind to mRNA in the cytoplasm and move along the molecule in a 5’ – 3’
direction until it reaches a start codon (AUG)
● Anticodons on tRNA molecules align opposite appropriate codons according to
complementary base pairing (e.g. AUG = UAC)
● Each tRNA molecule carries a specific amino acid (according to the genetic code)
● Ribosomes catalyse the formation of peptide bonds between adjacent amino acids (via
condensation reactions)
● The ribosome moves along the mRNA molecule synthesising a polypeptide chain until
it reaches a stop codon
● At this point translation ceases and the polypeptide chain is released
 Translation Mnemonic
The key components of translation are:
■ Messenger RNA (goes to…)
■ Ribosome (reads sequence in …)
■ Codons (recognised by …)
■ Anticodons (found on …)
■ Transfer RNA (which carries …)
■ Amino acids (which join via …)
■ Peptide bonds (to form …)
■ Polypeptides

Mnemonic: Mr Cat App

 Role of messenger RNA in translation.​
● Condons help the cellular machinery to convert the base sequence on the mRNA into an amino acid
sequence is called the genetic code.
● Four different bases and 20 amino acids – so one base can’t code for one amino acids
● 16 combos for 2 bases = still too few therefore living organisms use a triplet code
● Sequence of three bases is called codon – each codon codes for a specific amino acid to be added to the
polypeptide
● Amino acids are carried on another kind of RNA called tRNA, each has a specific ( has three base
anticondon complementary to the mRNA codon for the particular amino acid
● The genetic code is the set of rules by which information encoded within mRNA sequences is converted
into amino acid sequences (polypeptides) by living cells. The genetic code identifies the corresponding
amino acid for each codon combination. As there are four possible bases in a nucleotide sequence, and
three bases per codon, there are 64 codon possibilities (43). The coding region of an mRNA sequence
always begins with a START codon (AUG) and terminates with a STOP codon
 Codons

The base sequence in a DNA molecule, represented by the letters A T C G, make up the genetic code.
The bases hydrogen bond together in a complementary manner between strands. A will always go with T
(U in RNA) and G will always go with C.

This code determines the type of amino acids and the order in which they are joined together to make a
specific protein. The sequence of amino acids in a protein determines its structure and function. The
DNA code is a triplet code. Each triplet, a group of three bases, codes for a specific amino acid:
the triplet of bases on the DNA and mRNA is known as a codon
the triplet of bases on the tRNA is known as an anticodon
03.
Enzymes
The different enzymes used in Transcription and Translation
Transcription
The transcription of RNA requires the use of
three polymerase enzymes:
● RNA polymerase I : Polymerase I is
responsible for the transcription of
ribosomal RNA
● RNA polymerase II : polymerase II is
responsible for the transcription of
mRNA
● RNA polymerase III: polymerase III is
responsible for the transcription of both
ribosomal RNA and transfer RNA
 Translation

● Peptidyl transferase is the main enzyme used in Translation. It is found in the ribosomes with an
enzymatic activity that catalyzes the formation of a covalent peptide bond between the adjacent amino
acids.
● The enzyme’s activity is to form peptide bonds between adjacent amino acids using tRNAs during
translation.
● The enzyme’s activity uses two substrates of which one has the growing peptide chain and the other
bears the amino acid that is added to the chain.
● It is located in the large subunit of the ribosomes and therefore, the primary function of peptidyl
transferase is to catalyze the addition of amino acid residues allowing the polypeptide chain to grow.
● The peptidyl transferase enzyme is entirely made up of RNA and its mechanism is mediated by
ribosomal RNA (rRNA), which is a ribozyme, made up of ribonucleotides.
● In prokaryotes, the 23S subunit contains the peptidyl transferase between the A-site and the O-site of
tRNA while in eukaryotes, it is found in the 28S subunit.
04.
Resources
Few useful resources for review and further understanding
 Bibliography
● https://www.mrgscience.com/topic-27-dna-replication-transcription-and-translation.html
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubdoUqmNF98
● https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/translation-dna-to-mrna-to-protein-393/
● https://i-biology.net/ahl/07-nucleic-acids-and-proteins/7-3-7-4-transcription-translation/
● https://microbenotes.com/translation-protein-synthesis/
● https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/translation-dna-to-mrna-to-protein-393/#:~:text=During%20transcriptio
n%2C%20the%20enzyme%20RNA,encoded%20by%20the%20original%20gene
.
● https://basicbiology.net/micro/genetics/transcription-and-translation
● https://www.chem.uwec.edu/webpapers2006/sites/bergersl/pages/eukaryotic.html
● https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/ribonucleoside-triphosphate
● http://www.brooklyn.cuny.edu/bc/ahp/BioInfo/TT/TscriptG.html
● https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/gene-expression-and-regulation/transcription-and-rna-processing/
a/overview-of-transcription
● https://www.iitianacademy.com/ib-dp-biology-topic-2-molecular-biology-2-7-dna-replication-transcription-and-tran
slation-study-notes/
● https://www.iitianacademy.com/ib-dp-biology-topic-2-molecular-biology-2-7-dna-replication-transcription-and-tran
slation-study-notes/
● https://pediaa.com/difference-between-rna-polymerase-1-2-and-3/
● https://byjus.com/neet/dna-polymerases/#:~:text=Different%20DNA%20polymerases%20perform%20specific,the
%20main%20enzyme%20for%20replication
.