GROUP 5 MEMBERS

• R195256C DOMA JOSEPH JOSHUA ELISHA

• R195292M DONGO CHRIS TAKWANA
• R195245C DUBE TAKUNDA SYLVESTER
• R195298C GRAND CRISTOPHER ,SANTA
• R197128U GWANDU KUDZAI
 OPTICAL
DETECTORS (2)
Prerequisite(Group 4’s presentation)
-Detectors of optical signals: principle of operation;
responsivity; bandwidth; noise
 PHOTODIODES
• It is a two terminal device used to detect light signal
• It is a type of photodetector capable of converting light energy into electrical
energy in either current or voltage, depending upon the mode of operation.
• They are used for detection of optical signals and for conversion of optical power
to electrical power.
• Sometimes it is also called as photo-detector, a light detector, and photo sensor
• This device can be used in three modes: photovoltaic as a solar cell, reversed–
biased as a photo detector, and forward– biased as an LED.
STRUCTURE
 How it operates as a photo detector?
• Photodiode is reversed–biased to operate as a photo detector
• Once light is injected, due to low level injection at the junction, there
exists generated carriers
• But to drift those carriers towards load, we need electric force
• If that force is forward bias force then doping currents(mA) dominates
photo currents ,whereas if the force is due to reverse bias, then
photocurrents(uA) dominate thermal currents based on intensity of light.
 MATERIALS

• Photodiodes can be manufactured from a variety of materials including silicon,

germanium and indium gallium
• Each material uses different properties for cost benefit ,increased sensitivity,
wavelength range, low noise levels, or even response speed
• Silicon is the most favoured material for a photodiode. With a band gap of 1.1 eV, its
peak sensitivity is in I.R. between 800 to 950 nm. The sensitivity drops at shorter
wavelength.
• In order to increase sensitivity at shorter wavelength, the width of the p-layer should
be smaller
MATERIALS ELCTROMAGNETIC
SPECTRUM WAVELENGTH
RANGE (NM)

SILICON 190-1110

GERMANIUM 400-1700

INDIUM GALLIUM ARSENIDE 800-2600

LEAD SUFIDE 100-3500

CROSS SECTION OF THE SILICON
PHOTODIODE
 PHOTODIODE CONSTRUCTION
• N type silicon is the starting material. A thin "p" layer is formed on the front surface of the device
by thermal diffusion or ion implantation of the appropriate doping material (usually boron).
• The interface between the "p" layer and the "n" silicon is known as a p-n junction. Small metal
contacts are applied to the front surface of the device and the entire back is coated with a contact
metal.
• The back contact is the cathode, the front contact is the anode. The active area is coated with
either silicon nitride, silicon monoxide or silicon dioxide for protection and to serve as an anti-
reflection coating.
• The thickness of this coating is optimized for particular irradiation wavelengths. As an example, a
Centro Vision Series 5-T photodiode has a coating which enhances its response to the blue part of
the spectrum.
At the PN junction there will a concentration gradient that causes electrons to diffuse into the p-layer and holes to
diffuse into the n-layer. This diffusion results in an opposing electrical potential, often referred to as an internal bias
(depletion region).
In a generic p-n photodiode, light enters the device through the thin p-type layer. Absorption causes light intensity
to drop exponentially with penetration depth.
Any photons absorbed in the depletion region produce charge carriers that are immediately separated and swept
across the junction by the natural internal bias. Eventually there will be the movement of the charge carriers.
This movement of charge carriers across the junction upsets the electrical balance and produces a small
photocurrent, which can be detected at the electrodes.
In many applications it is desirable to maximize the thickness of the depletion region. For example, device
response is faster when most of the charge carriers are created in the depletion region.
This also increases the quantum efficiency of the device, since most charge carriers will not have the opportunity
to recombine. The quantum efficiency is defined as the ratio of the photocurrent in electrons to incident light
intensity in photons.
 HETEROSTRUCTURES
• DEFINITIONS
• Heterosructure:
• A heterostructure is a semiconductor structure in which the chemical
composition changes with position.
• The combination of multiple heterojunctions together in a device.
• Heterojunction:
• Is an interface between two dissimilar semicondutors.
HETEROJUNCTION| TYPES

Straddling gap (Type I)

Staggered gap (Type II)

Broken gap (Type III)
HETEROJUNCTION| TYPES
HETEROSTRUCTURES| DESIGNING
CONSIDERATIONS

Choice of the surface terminations that are interfaced.

Nature of the chemical bonds.

The occurrence of charge transfer at the interface.
PRACTICAL EXAMPLE| DH LED STRUCTURE | DH LED
WORKING OPERATION
DH LED STRUCTURE | DH LED WORKING
OPERATION

As shown thin layer of GaAs is sandwiched between two layers of
AlGaAs. GaAs is lightly doped and has narrower bandgap (Eg1) of about
1.43 eV. AlGaAs layers have wider bandgap (Eg2) of about 2.1 Ev.

When forward bias is applied through its top and bottom contacts as
shown in the figure, electrons are injected from highly doped (n+) AlGaAs
layer to central active (p-) GaAs layer.
DH LED STRUCTURE | DH LED WORKING
OPERATION

The injected electrons are trapped within the middle layer due to double
heterojunction potential barriers (Eg2 > Eg1) existing on both the sides of the
middle layer. The figure depicts energy band diagram when it is forward biased.

Electrons are forced to recombine with the holes without too much diffusion from
interfaces. They recombine radiatively with energy equal to the band gap of GaAs.

As recombination between electrons and holes is limited to narrower central part,
internal quantum efficiency of such LED is higher compare to single junction LED.
COMMON TYPES OF PHOTODIODES
1. P-N photodiode
2. Pin photodiode
3. Schottky Photodiode
4. Avalanche photodiode
 PIN PHOTODIODE
• This diode has intrinsic layer sandwitched in between two highly doped p
type and n type layers
• It gives performance improvement compared to PN photo diode
• PIN diode has larger depletion region
 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
OF PIN PHOTO DIODE
• ADVANTAGES
1. Very low reverse bias is necessary
2. High quantum efficiency
3. A larger bandwidth can be obtained
4. Lower noise performance
• DISADVANTAGES
1. It does not amplify the signal
 AVALANCHE PHOTODIODE
• In conventional photodiodes and PIN photodiodes Output current is very
small (100uA)
• This is because these photodiodes gain is less than 1.
• So the APD is used to obtain high current and high gain
 OPERATING PRINCIPLE AVALANCHE
PHOTODIODE
• Reverse bias is applied near to breakdown voltage
• Incident light will produce electron hole pairs
• These carrier will travel with their saturation velocity
• As velocity is maximum, these carriors will collide with other atoms
• So new electrons hole pairs are generated
• These new carriors also travel along with initial carrier
• The increase in carriers will increase current
• This process of generating more number of carriers is called impact ionization
 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
OF AVALANCHE PHOTODIODE
• ADVANTAGES
1. Avalanche gain
• DISADVANTAGES
1. High operating voltage is required
2. At high voltage noise is high
3. Avalanche means output is not linear
 COMPARISON BETWEEN PIN PHOTODIODE
AND AVALANCHE PHOTODIODE
Parameters PIN photodiode Avalanche photodiode
Gain Gain < 1 More gain provided
Response time Very less More
Sensitivity Less sensitive Highly sensitive
Output current Less output current More output current
Reverse bias voltage Very low reverse bias voltage Reverse bias voltage nearer to
breakdown voltage
Noises Less More

Temperature stability Good Poor

 ADVANTAGES OF PHOTODIODE
• Excellent linearity of output current with respect to incident light
• Low noise
• It is highly sensitive to the light.
• The speed of operation is very high.
• Wide spectral response
• Compact and lightweight
• Long life
• No high voltage required
 DISADVANTAGES OF PHOTODIODE
• Small active area
• Rapid increase in dark current and it depends on temperature.
• Require amplification at low illumination level.
• Photodiode characteristics are temperature dependent and have poor
temperature stability.
 APPLICATION OF PHOTODIODE
• Photodiodes are used in optical communication system.
• Photodiodes are used in electronics devices like smoke detectors, compact disc players,
andthe receivers for infrared remote control devices used to control equipment from
televisions to air conditioners..
• Photodiodes are often used for accurate measurement of light intesity in science and
industry.
• It is used in solar cell panels.
• They are also widely used in various medical applications, such as detectors for
computer tomography, instruments to analyze samples, and pulse oximeters.
THE END
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