VERY LOW FREQUENCY –

ELECTRO MAGNETIC METHOD

&
GROUND PENETRATING RADAR
Significance

 NON-INVASIVE
 COST EFFECTIVE
 QUICK
INTRODUCTION
 VLF-EM is very well known and suitable method for studying
and mapping of shallow subsurface geological structures.

 Effectively used for- mineral exploration and related geological

structures (Saydam, 1981; Fisher et al., 1983; Ligas and
Palmoba, 2006; Babu et al., 2007), to map weathered layers in
granitic terrains (Poddar and Rathod, 1983) and also for the
detection of water-filled fractures and shallow faults in nuclear
waste management programs (Hayles and Sinha, 1986) and
contamination evaluation, soil engineering, archaeology, and
for mapping narrow mineralized fault zones (Philips and
Richards, 1975; Wright, 1988).
INTRODUCTION
 VLF-EM method uses electromagnetic induction phenomenon
in the earth in the frequency band of 15–30 kHz.
 Sources of primary field: are distant vertical high power
transmitters located in coastal regions worldwide and intended
for long distance marine communication. Since the primary
field was horizontal, it would not respond over the horizontally
layered structure or homogeneous structure. VLF methods can
be used to determine the locations of saturated, sub-vertical
conductive zones in which the primary EM wave induces
current flow.
 WORKING
 Transmitted radio signal (primary field) induces secondary
magnetic field when the radio wave field passes through a
buried conductor (Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction which says that any oscillating magnetic field
will produce an electric field and hence an electric current
in a conductive media).
 Eddy currents are generated, creating a secondary
electromagnetic field.
 Interaction of the primary and secondary field makes an
ellipse of polarization around that conducting body.
 WORKING
 Resultant magnetic field is elliptically polarized, depending
on the shape or geometry of the conductor, the orientation of
the conductor, and the conductivity contrast with the
surrounding material or host rock. Therefore, all VLF
instruments measure either two components of the resultant
magnetic field or equivalently the “tilt angle” and
“ellipticity” of the field.

Given by Smith and Ward (1974)

 Where, and ,
 WORKING

 Tilt-angle variations follow a response across the anomaly

and thus the cross-over point coincides with the centre of the
anomaly.
 The tilt angle and current density derived from the
anomalous magnetic field can be used in subsequent
statistical analyses to locate and to image the subsurface
target.
 WORKING

 Real and Imaginary anomalies is computed from tilt angle

and ellipticity and given by the expressions and ,
respectively.

 Real and imaginary anomalies can be filtered out using filter

coefficients developed by KAROUS and HJELT (1983) to
get a pseudo-current density cross section of the subsurface.
(A) (B)
0 20

-20

R e a l A n o m a ly (% )
10
-40
D e p th (m )

0
-60

-80 -10

-10 0
-20
0 50 100 150 20 0 2 50 30 0 35 0 400 450 50 0 5 50 60 0
D istan ce (m )
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
D ista n ce (m )

(C) (D)

(A) Earth model, (B) Response (real anomaly), (C) K-H filter
(D) Analytical model (©Sauraabh Mittal)
 16
14
12
d e p th (m )

10
8

-50 6
4
2
0

-100 -2
-4
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 -6
-8

distance (m) in N-S -1 0

-1 2
-1 4
-1 6
-1 8
-2 0

[% current density]
GROUND PENETRATING RADAR
 GPR is a technique of imaging the subsurface at high
resolution.
 It is based on the principle that the propagation of radar waves
through a medium is controlled by its electrical properties at
high frequencies.
 GPR is a non-destructive technique.
 Applications: in urban and sensitive environments, imaging
shallow soil and rock structure at high resolution, locating
buried channels and mapping the water table.
 It also has several non-geological uses such as in archaeology,
for the location of buried walls or cavities, and in forensic
investigations, for the location of recently-disturbed ground
where a burial has taken place.
BASIC MECHANISM
 Electrode magnetic waves emitted into the ground
and time is measured for wave to be reflected and
received by the antenna.
 When wave hits areas of change in subsurface, it is
hit back to receiver antenna
 Changes in subsurface can include objects buried
underneath the surface.
BASIC MECHANISM
 GPR is similar in its principles to sonar surveying.
 A short radar pulse in the frequency band 10–1000
MHz is introduced into the ground.
 Radar velocities are controlled by the dielectric
constant (relative permittivity) and conductivity of
the subsurface.
 The velocity of a radar wave (V) is given by
 Ground Penetrating
Radar (GPR) is a
tool archaeologists
will
use more and more
for excavations in
the 21st century.
GPR allows
archaeologists to
survey
archaeological sites
in a short amount of
time with precision
and without digging.
Basic Principles

 Uses radio waves to create picture of

underground before excavation
 Picture is used to locate any variations in
the sub-surfaces
Basic Mechanism

 Electrode magnetic waves emitted into

the ground and time measured for wave
to be reflected and received
 When wave hits areas of change in soil, it
is hit back to receiver antenna
 Changes in soil can include objects
buried underneath the surface
 Greater surface
difference =
Stronger signal
 Strong signal has
large amplitude
 Weak signal has
small amplitude
 Amplitude
wavelength and
time are used to
create image of
what is
underground
 RDP
Relative Dielectric Permitivity

 “RDP is ability of a
material to store and
allow passage of
electromagnetic
energy when a field
is imposed upon it.”
 RDP of a substance
= electrical permitivity
/ vacuum
 C
K 
V
K = RDP
C = Speed of
light
V = Velocity of
radar energy
 GPR DEPTH
DETERMINATION
D = (5.9t)/sqrt of (Er)
Dielectric constants for common materials
D = depth of target (in)
Air 1
t = wave travel time
Pure water 81
(nanosec)
Fresh water (ice) 4
5.9 = a constant
incorporating speed of light Granite (dry) 5
and unit conversions Clay (saturated) 8-12
Er = dielectric constant of Sand (dry) 4-6
subsurface material Sand (saturated) 30
Example
How deep below the surface is an
object that is detected at 46 ns in dry
sand (Er = 4)?

Answer:
D = (5.9 x 46) / sqrt (4)
D = 135.7 in
Therefore the object is about 11 ft underground
Equipment
 Consists of:
1. control unit
2. display unit
3. transmitting and receiving unit
Wrap up…

 GPR usage has become

more wide-spread

 Now used in
construction

 Average person can

now purchase GPR
equipment