Subject : Data Communication

And Computer Networks

1.1
SUBJECT-WISE DISTRIBUTION OF UNITS
Unit No Unit Title Marks

I FUNDAMENTAL OF DATA 12
COMMUNICATION AND
COMPUTER NETWORKS
II TRANSMISSION MEDIA AND 16
SWITCHING
III ERROR DETECTION CORRECTION 12
AND WIRELESSCOMMUNICATION
IV NETWORK TOPOLOGIES AND 10
DEVICES
V REFERENCE MODELS 20
TOTAL 70
 Chapter 1
Fundamentals of data
communication and computer
networks
1.1 Process of data communication and its components:
Transmitter, Receiver, Medium, Message, Protocol

Data communication
The term telecommunication means communication at a
distance. The word data refers to information presented in
whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating and
using the data.
Data communications are the exchange of data between
two devices via some form of transmission medium such as
a wire cable.
 COMPONENTS OF DATA COMMUNICATION

The components of data communication are as follows :-

1) Message
It is nothing but information or data that is to be sent
from sender to receiver. The message can be in form of
sound, text, numbers, picture, videos or combination of
them.
2) Sender
Sender is host devices the sends message over medium
It can be video camera, work station, telephone etc.
3) Receiver
It is a device that receives a message and reproduces it.
And It can be TV set, work station, telephone etc.
4) Medium
the message originating from sender path needs over which
it can travel to receiver such path is called as medium or
channel
E.g. coaxial cable, twisted pair cable , fiber optic cable etc.
5) Protocol
Protocol is defined as set of rules agreed by sender and
receiver. There can be different protocols for different
functions. Protocols govern the exchange of data .
Figure 1.1 Components of a data communication system
1.2 Protocols, Standards, Standard organizations. Bandwidth,
Data Transmission Rate, Baud Rate and Bits per second.

Data Communication refer as the exchange of

data between two devices via some form of
Transmission media such as cable,
wire or it can be air or vacuum.
PROTOCOLS
A protocol is synonymous with rule. It consists of a set of rules that govern
data communications. It determines what is communicated, how it is
communicated and when it is communicated. The key elements of a protocol
are syntax, semantics and timing. Elements of a Protocol
oSyntax
o Structure or format of the data
o Indicates how to read the bits - field delineation
oSemantics
o Interprets the meaning of the bits
o Knows which fields define what action
oTiming
o When data should be sent and what
o Speed at which data should be sent or speed at which it is being
received.
Standard Organizations for Data Communication:
 1) International Standard Organization (ISO) – 
ISO is the International Organization for Standardization. It creates set of
rules and standards for graphics , document exchange , data communication
etc.
 2) Consultative Committee for International Telephony and Telegraphy
(CCITT) –
CCITT is now standard organization for the United States. CCITT
developer’s recommended set of rules and standards for telephone and
telegraph communication.
It has developed 3 set of specifications :
V Series for Modern Interfacing.
X series for Data Communication.

Q series for Integrated Services Digital Network(ISDN).

 
3) American National Standard Institute (ANSI) – 
ANSI is primary organization for fostering the development of technology
standards in the United States and providing various set of rules and standard
for  Data Communication.
 
4) Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineering (IEEE) –
It is US based professional organization of electronic , computer
and communication engineering. It provides various set of rules
and standard in communication and networking field.
 
5) Electronic Industries Association(EIA) –  
This organization establish and recommends industrial
standards. EIA has developed the RS(Recommended Standards)
series of Standards for data and telecommunication.
 
6) Standard Council of Canada (SCC) –
It is an official Standard Agency for Canada . It has Similar
responsibilities as ANSI has. 
 Bandwidth

Network bandwidth is a measurement indicating the maximum

capacity of a wired or wireless communications link to transmit
data over a network connection in a given amount of time.
Typically, bandwidth is represented in the number of bits,
kilobits, megabits or gigabits that can be transmitted in 1
second. Or
The maximum amount of data transmitted over an internet
connection in a given amount of time.
Bandwidth is often mistaken for internet speed when it's
actually the volume of information that can be sent over a
connection in a measured amount of time – calculated in
megabits per second (Mbps). 
 DATA TRANSMISSION RATES
Transmission rate:-
It is the time from the first bit until the last bit of a message has left
the transmitting node.
1) Bit Rate:-
•The rate at which bits are transferred from one location to
another. In other words, it measures how much data is transmitted
in a given amount of time.
•Bitrate is commonly measured in bits per second (bps), kilobits per
second (Kbps), or megabits per second (Mbps).
2) Baud Rate:-
•Baud rate is defined as the number of signal units per second. The
symbol is (Bd).
•Baud rate is also defined as per second number of changes in
signal.
•Baud Rate = bit rate / the number of bit per second
1-3 MODES OF DATA COMMUNICATION
Transmission mode refers to the mechanism of transferring
of data between two devices connected over a network. It is
also called Communication Mode.
These modes direct the direction of flow of information.
There are three types of transmission modes.

•Simplex Mode
•Half duplex Mode
•Full duplex Mode
1-3 MODES OF DATA COMMUNICATION
Simplex communication
• In simplex transmission mode, the communication
between sender and receiver occurs in only one
direction. The sender can only send the data, and the
receiver can only receive the data. The receiver cannot
reply to the sender.
• The Direction of Communication is Unidirectional in
Simplex mode
Example:- A keyboard / monitor relationship as an
example, the keyboard can only send the input to the
monitor, and the monitor can only receive the input
and display it on the screen. The monitor cannot reply,
or send any feedback, to the keyboard.
MODES OF DATA COMMUNICATION

Half duplex
• The communication between sender and receiver
occurs in both directions in half duplex transmission,
but only one at a time. The sender and receiver can
both send and receive the information, but only one is
allowed to send at any given time.
• In the half duplex mode the entire capacity of
channel is utilized by sender/receiver.
Example:-
In the walkie-talkies, the speakers at both ends can
speak, but they have to speak one by one. They cannot
speak simultaneously.
MODES OF DATA COMMUNICATION

Full duplex
•In full duplex mode the communication between
sender and receiver occurs in both directions
simultaneously. The sender and receiver can both send
and receive the information, at the same time.
•In full duplex mode the channel is divided in two for
sending and receiving the information
Example:-
In telephone conversation, two people communicate,
and both are free to speak and listen at the same time.
 Figure 1.2 Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)

1.18
1-3 MODES OF DATA COMMUNICATION
Basis for Comparison Simplex Half Duplex Full Duplex

Direction of Unidirectional Two-directional, Two-directional,

Communication one at a time simultaneously

Send / Receive Sender can only send Sender can send Sender can send and
data and receive data, receive data
but one a time simultaneously
Performance Worst performing Better than Best performing
mode of transmission Simplex mode of
transmission
Example Keyboard and Walkie-talkie Telephone
monitor

Comparison of modes
1-4 Analog signal and Digital Signal
An electrical or electromagnetic quantity (current, voltage,
radio wave, micro wave, etc.) that carries data or information
from one system (or network) to another is called a signal.
Two basic types of signals are used for carrying data,
viz. analog signal and digital signal.

Analog and digital signals are different from each other in

many aspects. One major difference between the two signals
is that an analog signal is a continuous function of time,
whereas a digital signal is a discrete function of time.
Analog signal:
A signal for conveying information which is a continuous
function of time is known as analog signal.
An analog signal is typically represented by a sine wave
function.
There are many more representations for the analog signals
also.
The bandwidth of an analog signal is low.
Digital Signal:
A signal which is a discrete function of time, i.e.
non-continuous signal, is known as digital signal.
The typical representation of a signal is given by a
square wave function.
The bandwidth of a digital signal is relatively high.
Compare Analog signal and Digital Signal

Analog signal Digital signal

An analog signal is a continuous wave A digital signal is a discrete wave that

that changes over a time period. carries information in binary form.

An analog signal is represented by a sine A digital signal is represented by square

wave. waves.

Analog signal has no fixed range. Digital signal has a finite numbers i.e. 0
and 1.

An analog signal is described by the A digital signal is described by bit rate

amplitude, period or frequency, and and bit intervals.
phase.
An analog signal is more prone to A digital signal is less prone to
distortion. distortion.

An analog signal transmits data in the A digital signal carries data in the binary
form of a wave. form i.e. 0 and 1.
Digital to Analog Conversion
Digital-to-Analog conversion or digital-to-analog modulation is
the phase of converting one of the features of an analog signal
depending on the data in a digital signal (0s and 1s) when we
communicate information from one system to another across a
public access phone line.

For example, the initial data are digital, but mobile

services use analog signals, the information should be
transformed. The digital data should be inflected on an
analog signal manipulated to a view like two definite
values equivalent to binary 1 and binary
1. Amplitude Shift keying – Amplitude Shift
Keying is a technique in which carrier signal is
analog and data to be modulated is digital. The
amplitude of analog carrier signal is modified to
reflect binary data.
2. Frequency Shift keying – In this modulation the frequency of
analog carrier signal is modified to reflect binary data.
The output of a frequency shift keying modulated wave is high in
frequency for a binary high input and is low in frequency for a
binary low input. The amplitude and phase of the carrier signal
remain constant.
3. Phase Shift keying – In this modulation the
phase of the analog carrier signal is modified to
reflect binary data. The amplitude and frequency
of the carrier signal remains constant.
Analog to Digital Conversion
When an analog signal is digitalized, that is known as analog-to-
digital conversion.
Consider a human address a voice in the structure of an analog
signal. We require to digitalize the analog signal that is smaller
inclined to noise. It needed a decrease in the several values in an
analog message defined in the digital flow.
PAM
The first phase in analog to digital conversion is known as PAM. PAM
represents pulse amplitude modulation. This method creates an analog signal,
samples it, and creates digital pulses sequences based on sampling. The
sampling method used in PAM is more helpful to other manufacturing fields
than data communication. PAM is the infrastructure of an essential analog-to-
digital conversion method known as pulse code modulation (PCM).
PCM
PCM represents Pulse Code Modulation. PCM method can
change the pulses generated by PAM to develop a completely
digital signal. To manage this, PCM first measures the PAM
pulses. Quantization is a technique of authorizing integral values
in a particular area to sampled instances. The outcome of
quantization is shown in the figure.
1-5 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

Definition: A computer network is a group of computer

systems and other computing hardware devices that are
linked together through communication channels to
facilitate communication and resource sharing among a
wide range of users.
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)
connected by communication links. A node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device capable of
sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes
on the network. A link can be a cable, air, optical fiber,
or any medium which can transport a signal carrying
information.
 Need of computer Networks

In today’s technology-oriented world, sharing has become

an integral part of businesses and other activities. This
sharing can be achieved by networking. A computer
network is linking two or more computers in order to
share files or resources.
 need computer networks in more detail 
1) To share computer files
Networks enable users to share files with others. For

example, in a company, one file is to be shared by

multiple branches. When we locate this file on the
network system, all the branches can use this file.
2) To share computer equipment
Laser printers and large hard-disk drives can be expensive.

Networks enable users to share such equipment by networking

microcomputers or workstations together.
3) To enable unlike computer equipment to communicate
A company with computers of multiple uses using several

operating systems, including MS-DOS, UNIX, WINDOWS 95,

and Apple DOS, cannot share files from one computer to
another unless arranged using a Networking operating system
including Network 4.1 or Windows NT 4.0.
4) To improve communication speed and accuracy
Sending messages through networks is virtually instantaneous,

and there is also less chance of a message being lost.

5) To reduce the cost of data transfer
The cost of transfers of files using computers associated with
networks is less expensive than other traditional means like
telegrams.
6) Verify Data Transfer
Fluctuations of costs in foreign exchange and shares can be
broadcasted promptly using the channel of computer
communications. The transmission can be increased and
checked at any occurrence of time.
 Benefits of computer networks

Main benefits of networks include:

1) File sharing – you can easily share data
between different users, or access it remotely if
you keep it on other connected devices.
2) Resource sharing – using network-connected
peripheral devices like printers, scanners and
copiers, or sharing software between multiple
users, saves money.
3) Sharing a single internet connection – it is cost-
efficient and can help protect your systems if you
properly secure the network.
4) Increasing storage capacity – you can access files
and multimedia, such as images and music, which you
store remotely on other machines or network-attached
storage devices.
Disadvantages of computer networks
The following are some disadvantages :
1) High cost installation
The initial cost of installation is very high.
2)Requires time of administration
Computer networks needs proper and careful administration
and maintenance
3) Failure of server
When the server goes down then the entire networks to a
standstill.
4) Cable faults
The computers in network are connected with cables.so
cable faults can paralyze a network.
 Network features

The following are the network features of

network:
File sharing

Printer sharing

Application services

Email

Remote access

Internet and intranet

Network security: Internal and external

1) File sharing
File sharing is primary feature of network

File sharing requires a shared directory or disk drive which Many

user can access over the network.

The file and directories kept in shared area are accessed by

multiple user at same time.

2) Printer sharing
Printer sharing is beneficial to many user as they can share a

costly and higher quality printers

Printer sharing is done using printer queues on server.

But sharing printer reduces the performance to server

Each user must wait for its turn.

3) Application services
As like files application can also be shared on network

When a particular node needs a application it loads the files in its

own memory and runs it.

4) Remote access
The remote access feature enables the user to access the data while

travelling to remote location.

It enables the user to access the centrailized application on LAN.

5) Email
It is most valuable and important feature for communication within

organization or outside in world

Email service can be used by user in two different ways

File based email

Client server
Services provided by computer networks
The services provided can be divided into two types:
I.Services provided by network for organisation

II.Services provided by network to people

I) Services provided by network for organisation are as

follows
1.Resource sharing
All data, programs and equipment's are available anyone
on network.
2.High reliability to alternative source of data
It provides high reliability by having alternative sources of
data especially for banking ,military arm forces etc.
 3.Cost:
Computer networking is an important financial aspect for

organisation.
They can use personal for each employee instead of mainframe

computers.
They can use workgroup model for sharing the data.

4.Communication medium
A computer network provides a powerful medium for

communication among widely separated employees.

Using the network they can work on same project.

1.42
  Services provided by network to people
1. Access to remote information
2. Person to person communication
3. E-commerce
4. Interactive entertainment

1.43
Functions of computer networks
 The functions of network machine is as
follows
 Basic user service
 Switching facility of connecting users
 Transmission system for transmission of data
on medium
 Routing in order to decide the path on the
medium
1-10 Functions of computer networks

 Addressing for identifying the end functions

 Multiplexing for sharing multiple information
channels
 Networks

 Local Area Networks (LANs)

 Short distances
 Designed to provide local interconnectivity
 Wide Area Networks (WANs)
 Long distances
 Provide connectivity over large areas
 Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)
 Provide connectivity over areas such as a city, a campus

1.46
1.6 Classification of Networks LAN, MAN,WAN
 LAN - Local Area Network
 MAN - Metropolitan Area Network

 WAN - Wide Area Network

 CAN - Campus Area Network

 PAN - Personal Area Network

LAN: LAN is local area network. LAN is privately-owned

networks covering a small geographic area(less than 1
km), like a home, office, building or group of buildings.
LAN transmits data with a speed of several megabits per
second.
2) MAN: A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a large
computer network that spans a metropolitan area or campus.
A MAN typically covers an area up to 10 kms (city). The
best example of MAN is the cable Television network,
available in many cities.
3)WAN: WAN is wide area network. WAN is a long-
distance communication network that covers a wide
geographic area, such as state or country. The most
common example is internet.
 1.7 Network Architecture
Peer to Peer: In the common client-
server architecture, multiple clients
will communicate with a central server.
A peer-to-peer (P2P) architecture
consists of a decentralized network of
peers - nodes that are both clients and
servers.
P2P networks distribute the workload
between peers, and all peers contribute
and consume resources within the
network without the need for a
centralized server.
CLIENT SERVER ARCHITECTURE

CLIENT :-
A client is computer running a program that requests services
from server.
The individual workstation is known as client.
SERVER :-
A server is simply a computer that makes network resources
available and provides services to other computer
 Client–Server Architecture
• In client server communication the servers
• Provide security and perform entire network
• In client server networks the processing task are
divided between clients and servers
• The server computer allows the clients to access
the its software and database
• Users are not allowed to access the resources of
server until he is authenticated.
Communication in Client-Server Configuration

The client places the a request on the server

machine, when it wants to access the resources.
The server responds to this request and sends the
signal accordingly.
Advantages of client server architecture
1.The network is secure

2.Better performance

3.Centralized backup

4.Higher reliability

Disadvantages
1.Professional administrator is required

2.High speed server is necessary with lots of disk

space
3.Its requires special NOS and client licenses

4.Expensive hardware is required

 Content Beyond Syllabus
TYPES OF SERVERS
 The commonly used servers are as follows
1. File server
2. Print servers
3. Application server
4. Database server
5. Message server
File Servers
• File servers store and distribute files.
• Multiple clients or users may share files stored on
a server.
• In addition, centrally storing files offers easier
backup or fault tolerance solutions than attempting
to provide security and integrity for files on every
device in an organization.
• File server hardware can be designed to maximize
read and write speeds to improve performance.
 Print server
1. Print servers allow for the management and
distribution of printing functionality.
2. Rather than attaching a printer to every
workstation, a single print server can respond to
printing requests from numerous clients..
Application server
 Application servers run applications in client computers
that runs applications locally.
 Application servers often run resource-intensive
applications that are shared by a large number of users.
 Doing so removes the need for each client to have
sufficient resources to run the applications.
 It also removes the need to install and maintain software
on many machines as opposed to only one
 Database server
 The amount of data used by companies, users, and other
services is staggering.
 Much of that data is stored in databases and need to be
accessible to multiple clients at any given time and can
require extraordinary amounts of disk space.
 Both of these needs lend themselves well to locating such
databases on servers.
 Database servers run database applications and respond to
numerous requests from clients. Common database server
applications include Oracle, Microsoft SQL Server, DB2,
and Informix.
Message server
 It is used to coordinate the communication
between the users, application and documents
 The data can in any format i.e. audio, video or
text etc.
 It handles the complex data types by using
various types of communication methods