Electricity

Circuit Diagrams
• Look at your notes which ones can you name?
• Can you explain what any of the symbols do?
Electric Current
• An Electric Current is the rate of flow of charge
• Current =
• Symbol I Unit Ampere (Amp) 1A= 1Cs-1

Small Current Large Current

Conventional vs actual current
 What is an Amp ?
The size of the current is measured in Amperes using an ammeter. The
faster the electrons move the larger the current.

One Ampere flows when 6.25x1018 electrons pass a given point in a

circuit each second.

Scientists decided that it was easier to use a unit to describe the charge
that this number of electrons carry (the coulomb) rather than counting
individual electrons.  You would buy a 1 kg bag of sugar rather than
counting all the crystals in it.

One coulomb of charge contains 6.25x1018 electrons.

Therefore each electron has a charge of -1.6x10-19 Coulomb.
 Current and Charge
Since one Ampere flows when one coulomb of charge passes a given
point in a circuit each second,
Coulomb 1A =1Cs-1
Amp =
second

Charge (C) Q
Current (A) = or I=
time (s) t

Also

Charge (C) = no. of electrons x charge of one electron

(1.6 x 10 -19)
Example 1:
How many electrons are there in 20 Coulombs ?

No. of electrons =
No. of electrons =
No. of electrons = 1.25 x1020 electrons

Example 2:
The current in a circuit is 5A. What is the charge flowing in :
a. 1 second ? 5 Coulomb
b. 10 seconds ? 50 Coulomb
Summary Questions

1. a. The current in a certain wire is 0.35A. Calculate the charge

passing a point in the wire i. in 10 s, ii in 10 min.
b. Calculate the average current in a wire through which a
charge of 15C passes in i. 5s, ii 100s

Ans:
a. i. I = 0.35A t = 10s
Q = It Q = 0.35 x 10 = 3.5 C

ii. I = 0.35A t = 10 min = 600s

Q = It Q = 0.35 x 600 = 210 C
b. i. Q = 15C t = 5s
I = Q/t I = 15/5 = 3A
ii. Q = 15C t = 100s
I = Q/t I = 15/100 = 0.15A
Summary Questions

2. Calculate the number of electrons passing a point in the wire in

10 minutes when the current is a. 1.0µA b. 5.0A

Ans:
a. I = 1.0µA t= 10min = 600s
Q = It = 1x10-6 x 600 = 6x10-4 C
No. of electrons = total charge / charge of one electron
No. of electrons = 6x10-4 / 1.6x10-19 = 3.75x1015 electrons

I = 5A t= 10min = 600s
Q = It = 5 x 600 = 3000 C
No. of electrons = total charge / charge of one electron
No. of electrons = 3000 / 1.6x10-19 = 1.88x1022 electrons
Summary Questions

3. In an electron beam experiment, the beam current is 1.2mA.

Calculate
a. The charge flowing along the beam each minute
b. The number of electrons that pass along the beam each
minute
Ans:
a. I = 1.2x10-3 A t= 1min = 60s
Q = It = 1.2x10-3 x60 = 0.072 C

b. no. of electrons = total charge /charge of one electron

no. of electrons = 0.072/1.6x10-19 = 4.5x1017 electrons
Summary Questions

A certain type of rechargeable battery is capable of delivering a

current of 0.2A for 4000s before its voltage drops and it
needs to be recharged.
Calculate:
a. The total charge the battery can deliver before it needs to be
recharged.
b. The maximum time it could be used for without being
recharged if the current through it was i. 0.5A, ii. 0.1A

Ans:
a. I = 0.2A t = 4000s
Q = It = 0.2 x 4000 = 800C
b. i. Q = 800C I = 0.5A
t = Q/I = 800/0.5 = 1600s
ii. Q = 800C I = 0.1A
t = Q/I = 800/0.1 = 8000s
• Exam style questions
 Current and charge quiz

1. Calculate the charge passing through a lamp in

three minutes when a steady current of 0.4 A is
flowing.

Q
I=
t

Q=It
Q = 0.4 x 3 x 60 = 72 Coulomb
 Current and charge quiz

2. Calculate the number of electrons flowing

through a resistor when a current of 2.3 flows for 5
minutes

Q
I=
t
Q=Ixt
Q = 2.3 x 5 x 60 = 690 Coulomb
no. of electrons = 690 /1.6x10-19 = 4.31x1021
 Current and charge quiz

3. What is the current in a circuit if 2.5x1020

electrons pass a given point every 8 seconds

Charge (C) = no. of electrons x charge of one electrons

Charge (C) = 2.5x1020 x 1.6x10-19 = 40 Coulombs

Q
I=
t
Current = 40/8 = 5 Amps
 Current and charge quiz

4. How long does it take for a current of 0.3A to

supply a charge of 48C?

Q
I=
t
t = Q/I
t = 48/0.3 = 160 seconds
 Current and charge quiz

5. How many electrons pass a point when a current

of 0.4A flows for 900 seconds?

Q
I=
t
Q = I x t = 0.4 x 900 = 360 Coulomb

no. of electrons = total charge / charge of one electron

no. of electrons = 360 / 1.6 x 10-19 = 2.25 x 1021

 Current and charge quiz

6. A torch bulb passes a current of 120 mA.

How many coulombs of charge flow through the lamp in 1 minute?

Q = I x t = 120x10-3 x 60 = 7.2 Coulomb

 Current and charge quiz

7. A car battery is rated as 36 A h.

In principle this means it could pass a current of 1 A for 36 h before
it runs down. How much charge passes through the battery if it is
completely run down?

Q = I x t = 1 x 36 x 60 x 60 = 129600 Coulomb
 Current and charge quiz

8. An electron beam in a beam tube carries a current of

125 A.
(a) What charge is delivered to the screen of the tube
every second?
(b) How many electrons hit the screen each second?

(a) Q = I x t = 125 x 10-6 x 1 = 125 x 10-6 Coulomb

(b) no. of electrons = 125 x 10-6 / 1.6x10-19 = 7.8 x 1014

 summary

Charge is a s a fundamental property of some types of particles

(e.g. protons and electrons). There is a law of force: like charges
repel, unlike charges attract. These are the forces that push charges
around electric circuits.
An electron has a charge of -1.6x10-19 Coulombs
A proton has a charge of + 1.6x10-19 Coulombs
Charge carriers are any charged particles that can move. e.g.
electrons, protons or ions.
When charge carriers move, they transfer energy from the source
e.g. the cell to the component e.g. the bulb.
One Coulomb is the charge of 6.2x1018 electrons
Current is the rate of flow of charge.
One Amp flows when one Coulomb of charge passes a certain
point in a circuit in one second.
Potential Difference
• Potential Difference vs. Electromotive Force - A Level Physics -
YouTubePotential
Difference vs. Electromotive Force - A Level Physics – YouTube
Definition of the volt
• 1 Volt is equal to 1 Joule per Coulomb (JC-1)
• (The potential difference across a component is 1 volt when you
convert 1 joule of energy moving 1 coulomb of charge through the
component.)
 In this circuit, 30 Joules of energy is transferred in
the bulb when 5 Coulombs of charge passes
through it.
What is the potential difference across it?

Is this a pd or emf?

Energy transferred
Potential difference=
charge V

pd = 30J / 5C = 6 Volts
In this circuit, the cell is supplying 48 Joules of
energy for every 6 Coulombs of charge.
What is the cell’s emf?

Energy transferred
emf =
charge V

emf = 48J / 6 C = 8V
 A battery has an emf of 9V. It is capable of delivering a
total charge of 2000C.

What is the maximum energy the battery could

deliver?

Energy transferred
emf =
charge

Energy transferred = Pd x charge

Energy transferred = 9V x 2000C = 18000 Joules

 A cordless drill operates using a 14.4 V battery pack. 
The battery is rated at 2 amp hours which means that it
can deliver a current of two amps for a period of 1
hour. 
How much energy is held by the battery? 

1 hour = 3600 s 
Charge = current x time = 2 A x 3600 s  = 7200 C
 
Energy transferred = Pd x charge

Energy transferred = 7200 C x 14.4 V = 103680 Joules 

Answers: Complete:
voltage work /energy charge

5.0 V 250 J 50 C

10 kV 500 kJ 50 C

3V 600 mJ 0.200 C

50 kV 2 GJ 40 kC

50 mV 3.0 x 10-5 J (30 μJ) 600 μC

 Example 1
• Calculate the energy transferred in 4 hours by an electrical
heater that draws a current of 15A when the pd across it is
90V
• To calculate the charge Q =It = 15A x 4x60x60=216000C
• Is this EMF or Pd?
• W = VQ =90x216000
• W = 19MJ
Example 2
• Calculate the energy transferred to 4C of charge by a cell with EMF
80V
• Is this EMF or Pd?
•ε=
• So W = εQ = 80 x4 = 320J
• Example 3 Calculate the potential difference across the bulb if 2kJ of
work is required to push a charge of 250C through the bulb.
Outline the difference between EMF and
potential difference
• Potential difference is used when work is done by the charge carriers.
A transfer of energy from the charge carriers to the component
transferring electrical energy into other forms
• Electromotive force (EMF) is used when work is done on the charge
carriers. A transfer of energy to the charge carriers from the
cell/battery/power supply etc. transferring other forms of energy i.e.
chemical, light etc into electrical energy
 Summary

The voltmeter reading in a circuit indicates the energy transferred

to the component by each unit of charge.
The voltmeter placed across the power supply measures the
electromotive force (emf) of the supply whereas the voltmeters
placed across the components measure the potential difference.
The term electromotive force is used when charges gain electrical
energy from the power supply.
The term potential difference is used when charges lose energy
by transferring electrical energy to other forms of energy.
Both emf and pd are measured in volts using a voltmeter.
Quantity Symbol S.I. unit Comments Equations

potential V volt (V) also use mV and kV V=W/Q

difference

charge Q coulomb (C) Q = It

current I amp (A) also use mA I = Q/t

I = V/R
I = P/V
energy E or W joule (J) also use kJ, MJ W = Pt
W = VQ

time t second (s)

• Resistance
Resistance
resistance = p.d. across a component
current through the component

R=V/I

resistance in measured in ohms (Ω)

potential difference in volts (V)
electric current in amperes (A)

also: V = I R
and I = V / R
What causes resistance?

Resistance is a measure of the difficulty of making a current

pass through a substance.
It is caused by the repeated collisions between the charge
carriers and the positive ions of the substance.
Questions
1. Calculate the resistance of a device if a current of 250mA flows
when a potential difference of 6V is applied
R=V/I
= 6V / 0.250A
= 24 Ω

2. Calculate the current that flows through a resistance of 4MΩ

when 60V is applied across it
I=V/R
= 60 V / 4 000 000 Ω
= 0.000 015 A = 15 μA
Answers: Complete:
resistance voltage current

6Ω 12 V 2A

10 kΩ 40 V 4 mA

460 Ω 230 V 0.5 A

20 kΩ 6V 300 μA

2 GΩ 8V 4 nA
Investigating Ohms law
• An investigation to find out how changing the current affects the potential
difference across a resistor
• Variables
• In this experiment the:
• Independent Variable is the electric current I
• Dependent Variable is the voltage V
• Control Variables are the material, length, cross section area and temperature
of the wire.
• These are kept the same by not changing the wire during the experiment, by
keeping the current small and opening the switching between readings.
 Measuring resistance

wire
Test wire

Ammeters measure current in A. Ammeters has a very low resistance and is always put into a circuit in series

Voltmeters measure potential difference (V). Voltmeters have a very high (infinite) resistance and are always put into a
circuit in parallel
• Method
• Set up the circuit, as shown above.
• Adjust the variable resistor until the current on the
Ammeter is 0.1 A. Record the current in a suitable table.
• Read the corresponding value of voltage across the wire
on the voltmeter and record in the table.
• Turn the switch off between all readings to prevent the
temperature of the wire rising.
• Turn on again. Ensure that the current is still 0.1 A and
repeat the voltage reading. Calculate the average voltage.
• Repeat the procedure for six values of current up to 0.7 A.
 Avoiding errors
• The temperature of the wire must be kept constant.
• Whenever a current flows through a conductor there is a
heating effect.
• Electrical energy is converted to heat energy.
• To ensure the temperature of the wire does not increase,
switch off between readings and keep the current as
small as possible.
• Read the ammeter and voltmeter accurately by reading
the scale from directly above the pointer or use digital
instruments.
Reading 1 Pd/ V
If you have time reverse the
Pd/ V Pd/ V polarity of the current and take
Current/A (reading 2) readings when the current is
(Reading 1) (mean) negative

0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
Interpreting the graph
• Plot a graph of V (y axis)against I (x
axis)
• What would be the gradient of this
graph Use y = mx +c to work this out?
• How would you describe the
relationship between V and I?
• What would happen to I if you
doubled V?
• What would the same graph look like
if you plotted I (on the y axis) and V
on the x axis?
 Ohm’s law
Ohm’s law states that the current through an
ohmic conductor is proportional to the potential
difference across it, provided the physical
conditions i.e. temperature do not change.
• A graph of p.d. against current for a
conductor obeying ohm’s law will
be a straight line through the origin.
• The gradient of such a graph is
equal to the resistance of the
conductor.
• Physical conditions remaining
constant include temperature and
the dimensions of the conductor.
• IV characteristics
Wire (and fixed resistors)
Straight line through the
origin.
Obeys Ohm’s law.

Note: With I-V graphs, a

greater gradient means a
lower resistance
Characteristic curves
• These are graphs of current against potential difference that are used to show how a component behaves in
an electric circuit.

• Negative and positive values are plotted to show any differences in device behaviour that depend on the
current direction (e.g. diode)
What does this graph tell us
about the difference between
the blue and the red resistor?

The blue resistor has a

lower resistance
compared to the red
resistor
• There are two methods you could do this experiment…
• Use this circuit in which case you will use the variable resistor to vary
the current from a minimum to a maximum

Plugged in as shown by the arrows

The disadvantage of using the

variable resistor is that the pd across
the component and the current
through the component cannot be
reduced to zero
 • What does a current pd graph look like for a filament bulb?

Or this set up…

In this case you are using
a potential divider to vary
the pd from zero to a
maximum.

The advantage of using a

potential divider circuit is
that the current through
the component and the
pd across it can be
reduced to zero

Setting Up A Variable Resistor, Rheost

at or Fixed
• Why is the IV graph for a filament bulb a curve not a straight line?
• What would the IV graph look like for a bulb as a VI graph?
• The diode
• How does a Diode work ? - YouTube
• How Does a Transistor Work? - YouTube
Silicon diode
Reverse direction (reverse-biased)
Very high resistance
Forward direction (forward-biased)
With p.d.s below about 0.6V resistance is
high. With p.d.s above 0.6V the resistance
falls rapidly to a few ohms and the current
increases rapidly.

Turn-on voltage
0.6V is known as the turn-on voltage.
Different types of diode have different
turn-on voltages, LEDs are typically about
1.5V.

Forward bias is the direction a current is allowed to flow in.

Threshold voltage - voltage required (usually 0.6V in the forward direction before
the diode will conduct electricity)
Diodes in circuits
In most electrical circuits a silicon
diode can be assumed to have the
following simplified behaviour:

Applied pd > 0.6V in the forward

direction
diode resistance = 0
diode pd = 0.6V

Applied pd < 0.6V or in the reverse

direction
diode resistance = infinite
diode pd = emf of power supply
• Use the same circuit that you used for a filament bulb to work out the
IV characteristics for a filament bulb (complete for both forward and
reverse bias

• Can you use the same ammeter? Should you use the ammeter, a milli
ammeter, a multi meter? Your decision – you decide.

• Take care with the diodes a protective resistor is often put into the
circuits to prevent too large a current
 Resistivity
(h) recall and use

and understand that this is the defining

equation for resistivity;
(i) describe how to determine the resistivity of a metal experimentally;
Electrical resistivity
• Electrical resistivity is an intrinsic property that quantifies how
strongly a given material opposes the flow of electric current. A low
resistivity indicates a material that readily allows the movement of
electric charge. Resistivity is commonly represented by the Greek
letter ρ (rho). The SI unit of electrical resistivity is the ohm metre(Ωm)
Variation in resistivity
• Metals and other good conductors have very low resistivities.
(e.g. copper = 1.7 x 10 – 8 Ωm)

• Good insulators have very high resistivities.

(e.g. PVC = 1.0 x 10 + 14 Ωm)

• Semiconductors have intermediate resistivities.

(e.g. silicon = 2.3 x 10 + 3 Ωm)

• Resistivity table on Wikipedia

 • Resistivity table on Wikipedia

Nichrome[note 6]1.10×10−6
Investigating resistivity (required practical to be completed with Mr
Coffey

• Aims
• In this experiment you will be testing the resistivity equation

• where  is the resistivity, R is the resistance of the conductor, A is its

cross‑sectional area and L is its length.
• AQA Practical Endorsement (alevelphysicsonline.com)
Analogue Micrometer

The micrometer is reading 4.06 ± 0.01 mm

Resistivity (ρ)
Experiments show that the resistance of a conductor
is:
1. proportional to its length, L
2. inversely proportional to its cross-section area,
A
and so: R α L / A
The constant of proportionality is the
resistivity, ρ of the conductor

Therefore: R = ρ L
A

Resistivity is measured in ohm-metre, Ωm.

Electrical resistivity is the measure of how much a material resists carrying an

electrical current.
Questions on resistivity
1. Calculate the resistance of a 0.30m length of copper wire of
cross-section area 5.0 x 10-6 m2 [resistivity of copper = 1.7 x 10-8
Ωm]
R=ρL A

= (1.7 x 10-8 Ωm) x (0.30m) / (5 x 10-6 m2)

= 0.00102 Ω = 1.02 mΩ

2. Repeat the above question, this time with silicon [resistivity of

silicon = 2300 Ωm]
= (2300 Ωm) x (0.30m) / (5 x 10-6 m2)
= 1.38 x 108 Ω = 138 MΩ
3. Calculate the resistivity of a metal wire of cross-section diameter
0.40mm if a 25cm length of this wire has a resistance of 6.0Ω.

A = πd2
4
= π x (4 x 10 - 4 m)2 / 4
= π x (1.6 x 10 - 7 m2) / 4
cross-section area = 1.2566 x 10 - 7 m2
ρ = RA
L
= (6 Ω) x (1.2566 x 10 - 7 m2 ) / (0.25 m)
resistivity = 3.02 x 10 - 6 Ωm
 Superconductivity
1)understand what is meant by superconductivity, and superconducting
transition temperature;
2) recall that not all metals show superconductivity, and that, for those
that do, the transition temperatures are a few degrees above absolute
zero (–273°C);
recall that certain special materials (high temperature
superconductors) have transition temperatures above the boiling
point of nitrogen (–196°C), and can therefore be kept below their
transition temperatures using liquid nitrogen;
3) recall that superconducting magnets are used in particle accelerators,
tokamaks and magnetic resonance imaging machines, and are
expected soon to be used in some large motors and generators;
4) understand that ordinarily (that is, above the transition temperature),
collisions between free electrons and ions in metals increase the
random vibration energy of the ions, so the temperature of the metal
increases;
• Please explain these jokes after you have completed your research….
• A room temperature superconductor walks into a bar.
• The bartender says, "Get out! There are no superconductors allowed
in this bar."
• The room temperature superconductor leaves without putting up any
resistance.
• Research lesson
• You need to write a 300-500 word speech about
superconductors and have a PowerPoint ready to present to
the class
• In this speech you must explain
• What is a superconductor
• Name some superconductors
• What is a superconductor’s transitional temperature?
• What is the critical temperature of a superconductor?
• How do you get the cold temperatures needed for super
conductor to work?
• What are the uses of superconductors?
• You may use the internet to research this, however a good
place to start is your text book.
• 
Links to watch

• GCE (A-level) Physics E27 Resistance and Temperature 3 of 3 Supercon

ductors - YouTube
• Superconductors -- Powering Our Future - Bing video
• Levitating Superconductor on a Möbius strip – YouTube
• The First Room Temperature Superconductor! (Still No Hoverboards) |
SciShow News - YouTube
Superconductivity
• Superconductivity is a state where certain materials
have zero resistivity.
• This occurs at and below a critical temperature (Tc)
which depends on the material.
• Tc is usually below – 200oC.
• Applications include:
• very strong electromagnets (e.g. in MRI scanners)
• power cables to prevent wastage of electrical energy (e.g.
to supply the LHC)
A level Question 1
• 3. (a) What is a superconductor? [1]

• (b) With the aid of a sketch graph, explain the term superconducting transition temperature.

• [3] (c) Explain why superconductors are useful for applications which require large electric
• currents and name one such application. [2]
A level Question 1
• 3. (a) What is a superconductor? [1]

• (b) With the aid of a sketch graph, explain the term superconducting transition temperature.

• [3] (c) Explain why superconductors are useful for applications which require large electric
• currents and name one such application. [2]
• Power and electrical energy
The heating effect of an electric current
• When an electric current flows through an electrical conductor
the resistance of the conductor causes the conductor to be
heated.
• This effect is used in the heating elements of various devices
like those shown below:

Heating eff
ect of resist
ance Phet
Power and resistance
When a potential difference of V causes an electric current I to
flow through a device the electrical energy converted to other
forms in time t is given by:

E=IVt

but: power = energy / time

Therefore electrical power, P (in Watts) is given by:
P=IV
The definition of resistance: R = V / I
rearranged gives: V = I R
substituting this into P = I V gives:
P=I2R

Also from: R = V / I
I=V/R
substituting this into P = I V gives:
P=V2/R
Questions on P = I V
1. Calculate the power produced by a bulb connected to a 230V
power supply if a current of 50mA flows
P=IxV
= 0.050 A x 230V
= 11.5 W

2. Calculate the current drawn from a 12V battery by a 60W device

I=P/V
= 60 W / 12 V
= 5.0 A
Question 1
Calculate the power of a kettle’s heating element of
resistance 18Ω when draws a current of 13A from the
mains supply.

P=I2R
= (13A)2 x 18Ω
= 169 x 18
= 3042W
or = 3.04 kW
Question 2
Calculate the current drawn by the heating element of an
electric iron of resistance 36Ω and power 1.5kW.

P = I 2 R gives:
I2=P/R
= 1500W / 36 Ω
= 41.67
= I 2 !!!!
therefore I = √ ( 41.67)
= 6.45 A
Answers: Complete:
charge time current voltage work power

60 C 12s 5A 12V 720 J 60 W

15 C 5s 3A 9V 135 J 27W

2 kC 200s 10 A 6V 12kJ 60 W

6kC 50 mins 2A 230V 1.38 MJ 460 W

Starting a car problem
A car engine is made to turn initially by using a
starter motor connected to the 12V car battery.
If a current of 80A is drawn by the motor in
order to produce an output power of at least
900W what must be the maximum resistance of
the coils of the starter motor?
Comment on your answer.
Power supplied by the battery:
P=IV
= 80 A x 12 V
= 960 W

Therefore the maximum power allowed to be lost due to resistance

= 960 W – 900 W
= 60 W

P = I 2 R gives:
R=P/I2
= 60 W / (80 A)2
= 60 / 6400
= 0.009375 Ω
maximum resistance = 9.38 mΩ
Comment:
This is a very low resistance.
It is obtained by using thick copper wires for both the
coils of the motor and for its connections to the
battery.
‘Jump-leads’ used to start cars also have to be made
of thick copper wire for the same reason.
Power distribution question
A power station produces 10MW of electrical power.
The power station has a choice of transmitting this
power at either (i) 100kV or (ii) 10kV.
(a) Calculate the current supplied in each case.
P=IV
gives: I = P / V
case (i) = 10MW / 100kV = 100 A
case (ii) = 10MW / 10kV = 1000 A
(b) The power is transmitted along power cables of total resistance 5Ω.
Calculate the power loss in the cables for the two cases. Comment on
your answers.
P = I 2R
case (i) = (100A)2 x 5 Ω
= 50 000W = 50 kW
case (ii) = (1000A)2 x 5 Ω
= 5 000 000W = 5 MW

Comment:
In case (i) only 50kW (0.5%) of the supplied 10MW is lost in the power
cables.
In case (ii) the loss is 5MW (50%!).
The power station should therefore transmit at the higher voltage and
lower current.
Energy
Revision of previous work
When a potential difference of V causes an electric current I to
flow through a device the electrical energy E (in Joules)
converted to other forms in time t is given by:

E=IVt
Stretch and challenge
can anyone explain
E= how you get the
other equations from
E=IVt hint use V=IR
V=I2Rt
• EMF and internal resistance
Emf and internal resistance
Emf, electromotive force (ε):
The electrical energy transferred per unit charge into
electrical form (i.e. for a battery this would be
chemical to electrical )

Internal resistance (r):

The resistance of a power supply, also known as source
resistance.
It is defined as the loss of potential difference per unit
ε = E current in the source when current passes through the
source.
Q
The p.d. between two points is the energy converted
from electrical potential energy to some other form
per coulomb of charge flowing from one point to the
other. Unit: volt (V) [= JC-1].
Equation of a complete circuit
The total emf in a complete circuit
is equal to the total pds.
Σ (emfs) = Σ (pds)

For the case opposite:

ε = IR + Ir
or
ε = I(R + r)
Terminal pd (V )
The pd across the external load
resistance, R is equal to the pd
across the terminals of the power
supply. This called the terminal pd
V.

therefore,
ε = IR + Ir
becomes:
ε = V + I r (as V = I R )
or
V = ε- Ir
Lost volts (v)
I r , the lost volts, is the difference
between the emf and the terminal pd
ε = V + Ir
becomes: ε = V + v
that is:
emf = terminal pd + lost volts

This equation is an example of the

conservation of energy.
The energy supplied (per coulomb) by the
power supply equals the energy supplied
to the external circuit plus the energy
wasted inside the power supply.
Question 1
Calculate the internal resistance of a battery
of emf 12V if its terminal pd falls to 10V when
it supplies a current of 6A.

ε = IR + Ir
where I R = terminal pd = 10V
so: 12 V = 10 V + (6A x r )
(6 x r ) = 2
r=2/6

internal resistance = 0.333 Ω

Example 2
Calculate the current drawn from a battery of
emf 1.5V whose terminal pd falls by 0.2V
when connected to a load resistance of 8Ω.

ε = IR + Ir
where I r = lost volts = 0.2V
1.5 V = (I x 8 Ω) + 0.2V
1.5 – 0.2 = (I x 8)
1.3 = (I x 8)
I = 1.3 / 8
current drawn = 0.163 A
Example 3
Calculate the terminal pd across a power
supply of emf 2V, internal resistance 0.5Ω
when it is connected to a load resistance of
4Ω.

ε = IR + Ir
where I R = terminal pd
2 V = (I x 4 Ω) + (I x 0.5 Ω )
2 = (I x 4.5)
I = 2 / 4.5
= 0.444 A
The terminal pd = I R
= 0.444 x 4
terminal pd = 1.78 V
Answers: Complete:
terminal lost
ε/V I/A R/Ω r/Ω pd / V volts / V
6 2 2 1 4 2
12 8 1 0.5 8 4

1.5 0.050 28 2 1.4 0.1

230 10 22 1 220 10

2 100 0.015 0.005 1.5 0.5

Planning procedures- how to complete long answer
questions
Usually there is a question about practical procedures in the A level
examination.

Example:
In an experiment a marble was rolled down a slope. With the slope
angle kept constant the time taken by the marble was measured for
different distances down the slope. The average speed of the
marble was then measured using the equation, speed = distance ÷
time.

Question:
Describe a procedure for measuring how the average speed varies
with slope angle. [5 marks]

IN PAIRS write down everything that you think could get you the
five marks
Answer:
Any five of:
• measure the angle of a slope using a protractor
• release the marble from the same distance up the slope
• start the stop-watch on marble release stop the stop-watch once the marble
reaches the end of the slope
• repeat timing
• calculate the average time
• measure the distance the marble rolls using a metre ruler
• calculate average speed using: speed = distance ÷ time
• repeat the above for different slope angles
• What are the independent and dependent variables
• What is your range?
• What is your interval?
• What is your health and safety assessment?
• If you do a preliminary experiment how could you use this to work out the values
of the independent variable?
Measuring internal resistance
• How to write a plan practical – to be completed in Mr Coffees lesson

• Measuring Internal Resistance - PRACTICAL - A Level Physics - YouTube

Measurement of internal resistance
1. Connect up circuit shown
opposite.
2. Measure the terminal pd
(V) with the voltmeter
3. Measure the current
drawn (I) with the
ammeter
4. Obtain further sets of
readings by adjusting the
variable resistor
5. The bulb, a resistor, limits
the maximum current
drawn from the cell
6. Plot a graph of V against I
(see opposite)
7. Measure the gradient
which equals – r (the
negative of the internal
resistance)

terminal pd, V = I R
and so: ε = I R + I r
becomes: ε = V + I r
and then V = - r I + ε
this has form y = mx + c,
and so a graph of V against I has:
y-intercept (c) = ε
gradient (m) = - r
Worked questions to try
• http://www.cyberphysics.co.uk/Q
&A/KS5/electricity/EMF/EMF.html
Car battery internal resistance
• A car battery has an emf of about 12V.

• Its prime purpose is to supply a current of about 100A for

a few seconds in order to turn the starter motor of a car.

• In order for its terminal pd not to fall significantly from

12V it must have a very low internal resistance (e.g.
0.01Ω)

• In this case the lost volts would only be 1V and the

terminal pd 11V
High voltage power supply safety
A high voltage power supply sometimes has a large protective
internal resistance.
This resistance limits the current that can be supplied to be well
below the fatal level of about 50 mA.
For example a Power Supply Unit of 3 kV typically has an internal
resistance of 10 MΩ.
The maximum current
= Imax = 3 kV / 10 M Ω
= 3 000 / 10 000 000
= 0.000 3 A = 0.3 mA (safe)
Maximum power transfer
The power delivered to the external load
resistance, R varies as shown on the graph
opposite.

The maximum power transfer occurs when

the load resistance is equal to the internal
resistance, r of the power supply.

Therefore for maximum power transfer a

device should use a power supply whose
internal resistance is as close as possible to
the device’s own resistance.

e.g. The loudest sound is produced from a

loudspeaker when the speaker’s resistance
matches the internal resistance of the
amplifier.