IS 171 - Introduction to

Computer Networks

Layered Models – TCP/IP

Addressing in TCP/IP

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Layered Models
1. OSI reference model
2. TCP/IP reference model

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TCP/IP reference model
• The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in
the OSI model.
• The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four layers:
• Host-to-network
• Internet
• Transport
• Application

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TCP/IP vs OSI reference model

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TCP/IP vs OSI reference model
• The upper layers
• Session
• Permits two parties to hold ongoing communication (session) across a network
• Not found in TCP/IP model; its functions are provided by the TCP/IP Transport layer
• Presentation
• Handles data format information for networked communication
• Not found in TCP model; its functions are provided by the TCP/IP Application layer
• Application
• Provides a set of interfaces for applications to obtain access to networked services
• OSI protocols: FTAM, VT, MHS, DS, CMIP
• TCP/IP protocols: FTP, SMTP, TELNET, DNS, SNMP

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TCP/IP vs OSI reference model
• FTAM - File Transfer Access and Management
• VT - Virtual Terminal protocol
• MHS - Message handling system
• DS - Directory services
• CMIP - Common Management Information Protocol
• FTP - File Transfer Protocol
• SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
• TELNET – Network Virtual Terminal Protocol (for accessing remote computers)
• DNS - Domain Name System
• SNMP - Simple Network Management Protocol

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TCP/IP vs OSI reference model
• The Transport Layer
• Provides “transparent” transfer of data from a source end open system to a
destination end open system
• OSI Layer 4
• TCP/IP protocols: TCP and UDP
• Most functions and specification of TCP and UDP in TCP/IP model map to the
OSI Transport layer
• Both models employ connectionless and connection-oriented services at the
Transport layer

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TCP/IP vs OSI reference model
• The Network Layer
• Provides both connectionless and connection-oriented services in OSI
• For the TCP/IP architecture, the Internet layer is exclusively connectionless
• OSI Layer 3
• TCP/IP Internet layer
• Protocols:
• OSI – CLNP (Connection-Less-mode Network Service)
• TCP/IP – IP (Internet Protocol)
• Virtually identical services; CLNP allows variable-length addresses while IP supports
fixed-size addresses (32 bits)

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TCP/IP vs OSI reference model
• Data Link Layer
• Provides for the control of the physical layer, and detects and possibly
corrects errors which may occur
• OSI – Layer 2
• TCP/IP – Data Link + Physical Layer (Host-to-Network)
• Transforms a stream of raw bits (0s and 1s) from the physical into a data
frame and provides an error-free transfer from one node to another

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TCP/IP vs OSI reference model
• Comparison and contrast OSI TCP/IP

between the models Application (7)

Presentation (6) Application
• General Comparison Session (5)
1. Focus of Reliability Control Transport (4) Transport
2. Roles of Host system Network (3) Internet
3. De-jure vs De-facto Data Link (2) Data Link
Physical (1)

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TCP/IP vs OSI reference model
1. Reliability
• OSI
• Places emphasis on providing a reliable data transfer service
• Each layer detects and handles errors
• Each data transmitted includes checksums
• The Transport layer checks source-to-destination reliability
• TCP/IP
• Reliability control is concentrated at the Transport layer
• Transport layer handles all error detection and recovery
• Transport layer uses checksums, acknowledgements and timeouts to control
transmission

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TCP/IP vs OSI reference model
2. Roles of Host system
• OSI
• Hosts do not handle network operations (simple terminal)
• TCP/IP
• Hosts participate in most network protocols (end-to-end verification, routing, network
control)
• Achieved using Internet layer (viewed as a data delivery system involving intelligent
hosts)

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TCP/IP vs OSI reference model
3. De-jure vs De-facto
• De-jure: describes practices that are legally recognized by official laws
• De-facto (in fact, in practice): describes situations that are generally known to exist in reality,
even if not legally authorized
• OSI:
• Standard legislated by official recognized body (ISO)
• OSI model devised before the protocols were invented – made the model more general and
not biased towards a particular protocol
• Negative side: protocol designers did not have much experience, did not have an idea of
which functionality to put in which layer
• Positive side: protocols in the OSI are better hidden- can be replaced easily as technology
changes
• Complex, costly, not widespread as TCP/IP
• More commonly used as teaching aid

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TCP/IP vs OSI reference model
• De-jure vs De-facto
• TCP/IP
• Standard adopted due to widespread use (Internet)
• The protocols came first, and the model later (just a description of the
existing protocols)
• More popular standard for internetworking:
• Relatively simple and robust compared to OSI
• Available on virtually every hardware and operating system platform (often free)
• The protocol suite on which the Internet depends

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TCP/IP vs OSI reference model
• Similarity (summary)
• Both are based on the concept of a stack (layers) of independent
protocols
• The functionality of the layers is roughly similar

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TCP/IP vs OSI reference model
• Differences
OSI
Makes the distinction between services,
interfaces, and protocol
Devised before the protocols were invented
– can work in diverse heterogeneous
networks
Supports both connectionless and
connection-oriented communication in the
Network layer, but only connection-oriented
in the Transport layer
Has seven layers
Emphasis is on providing a reliable data
transfer service at each layer
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TCP/IP
Does not originally clearly distinguish
between services, interface, and protocol
A description of the existing protocols
Supports only connectionless mode in the
Network layer, but supports both modes in
the Transport layer
Has four layers
Treats reliability as an end to end problem
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Addressing in TCP/IP
• Four levels are used in TCP/IP protocols
1. Physical
2. Logical
3. Port
4. Specific

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Addressing in TCP/IP
• Each address is related to one layer in the TCP/IP architecture

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Addressing in TCP/IP
1. Physical address (Link address)
• The address of a node as defined by its LAN or WAN
• Lowest level address; included in the frame used by the data link layer
• Size and format of address vary depending on the network
• Ethernet: 6 byte (48 bits) physical address imprinted on the Network Interface Card
(NIC)
• Most LANs use 48-bit (6 byte) physical address written as 12 hexadecimal
digits
• Every byte (2 hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon
• E.g. 07:01:02:01:2C:4B

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 Addressing in TCP/IP
• Physical address – example
• Two nodes (10 and 87) are connected by a link (bus topology LAN)
• Node 10 is a sender and node 87 is a receiver; node 10 sends a frame to node 87
• At the data link layer, this frame contains physical (link) addresses in the header (87 - destination address
and 10 – source address)
• The frame is propagated through the LAN; each node with a physical address other than 87 drops the
frame – the physical address on the frame does not match the node’s address
• The intended destination node finds a match with its own physical address and accepts the frame

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Addressing in TCP/IP
• Physical addresses can be either
• Unicast – one single recipient
• Multicast – a group of recipients
• Broadcast – received by all nodes in the network
• A source address is always a unicast address – the frame comes from only one station
• Destination address can be unicast, multicast or broadcast
• The least significant bit of the first byte defines the type of address (unicast – 0;
multicast – 1)
• Broadcast addresses have the value FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF (all 1s)

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Addressing in TCP/IP
• Exercise: Define the type of the following destination addresses:
• 4A:30:10:21:10:1A
• 47:20:1B:2E:08:EE
• FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF

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Addressing in TCP/IP
2. Logical addresses
• Necessary for universal communications that are independent of underlying
physical networks
• Physical addresses – not adequate in an internetwork environment –
different networks can have different address formats
• A universal addressing system is needed - each host must be identified
uniquely, regardless of the underlying physical network
• The Internet currently uses a 32-bit address (IP address) that can uniquely
define a host connected to the Internet
• No two publicly-addressed and visible hosts on the Internet can have the
same IP address

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 Addressing in TCP/IP
• Logical address – example
• Figure shows part of the Internet with two
routers connecting three LANs
• Each device (computer or router) has a pair of
addresses (logical and physical) for each
connection
• Each computer is connected to only one link and
therefore has only one pair of addresses
• Each router is connected to three networks (only
two are shown), hence three pairs of addresses,
one for each connection
• Logical addresses – letters, Physical addresses -
numbers

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Addressing in
TCP/IP
• Logical address – example
• Host with logical address A and physical address
10 needs to send a packet to a host with
physical address 95 and logical address P
• Data encapsulated at network layer and one
pair of (logical) addresses are added: A (source)
and P (destination)
• In most protocols, the logical source address
comes before the logical destination address
(contrary to the order of physical addresses) Next hop Source Source Destn.
Physical Physical Logical Logical
• The network layer needs to find the physical Address Address Address Address
address of the next hop before the packet is
delivered
• From a routing table, the logical address of the 20 10 A P Data
next hop (router 1) is F
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Addressing in TCP/IP
• Another protocol, ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) is used to find the physical address
of router 1 – 20
• The network layer passes this address (20) to the data link layer
• Data link layer encapsulates the packet with physical destination (next hop) address, 20,
and physical source address 10
• The router de-capsulates the packet from the frame to read the logical destination
address P.
• Since the logical destination address (P) does not match the router’s logical address (F),
the router knows that the packet needs to be forwarded
• The router consults its routing table and ARP to find the physical destination address of
the next hop (router 2), creates a new frame, encapsulates the packet, and sends it to
router 2
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Addressing in TCP/IP
• Note
• The source physical address changes from 10 (source computer) to 99
• Now the (physical) source is router 1
• The destination physical address changes from 20 (router 1) to 33 (router 2
physical address)
• The logical source and destination addresses remain the same
• At router 2, physical addresses change and a new frame is sent to destination
computer
• The destination logical address P matches the logical address of the computer
• At destination, the data is de-capsulated from the packet and sent to upper layer
• The physical addresses will change from hop to hop, but the logical addresses
remain the same
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Addressing in TCP/IP
3. Port addresses
• Data transfer from source to destination is enabled by physical and logical
addressing
• Computers run multiple processes at the same time
• End objective of Internet communication is a process communicating with another
process at the same time
• E.g. computer A can communicate with computer B by using TELNET
• At the same time computer A can be communicating with computer C using FTP
• For these processes to receive data simultaneously, a method is needed to label the
different processes
• A label assigned to a process is called a port address
• A port address in TCP/IP is 16 bits long represented by one decimal number, e.g. 753

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Addressing in TCP/IP
• Port addresses – example
• Two computers A and B are communicating
via the Internet
• Computer A is running three processes with
port addresses a, b and c
• Computer B is running two processes with
port addresses j and k
• Process a in computer A needs to
communicate with process j in computer B
• When using TCP, port address at A and B are
different since one computer is a server
program and the other a client program

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Addressing in TCP/IP
• Data is encapsulated with source and destination port addresses at the
transport layer (a and j)
• The packet from the transport layer is encapsulated in another packet at
the network layer with logical source and destination addresses (A and P)
• The process is continued at each layer – encapsulation with physical source
and destination addresses of the next hop (in the Internet, as previously
described)

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Addressing in TCP/IP
• In TCP/IP, port numbers are integers between 0 – 65,535 (i.e. 2 16 = 65,536)
• The client program defines itself with a port number, called the ephemeral
port number, (chosen randomly)
• Ephemeral means short lived
• The server process must also define itself with a port number (called well-
known port numbers)
• This port number cannot be chosen randomly
• ICANN – Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers

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Addressing in TCP/IP
• ICANN has divided the port numbers in three ranges
• Well-known ports
• Range from 0 to 1023
• Assigned and controlled by ICANN
• Registered ports
• Range from 1024 to 49,151
• Not assigned or controlled by ICANN; can only be registered by ICANN to prevent
duplication
• Dynamic (private) ports
• Range from 49,152 to 65,535
• Neither controlled nor registered
• Can be used as temporary or private port numbers

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Addressing in TCP/IP
4. Application-specific addresses
• User-friendly addresses that are designed for that specific application
• E.g. email address: johndoe@udsm.ac.tz
• E.g. Universal Resource Locator (URL): www.udsm.ac.tz
• These addresses get changed to the corresponding port and logical addresses
by the sending computer

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TCP Encapsulation

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