DECK WATCHKEEPING

WITH BRIDGE RESOURCE

MANAGEMENT
WKD 201
 COURSE DESCRIPTION

• THIS MODULE COVERS THE REQUIREMENTS IN CHAPTER II OF THE 1978

STCW CONVENTION, AS AMENDED AND TABLE A-II/1 OF SECTION A-II/1
OF THE STCW CODE.
 STCW CONVENTION CHAPTER II

CHAPTER II - Master and deck department

• Regulation II/1 Mandatory minimum requirements for certification of
officers in charge of a navigational watch on ships of 500 gross tonnage or
more
•  1 Every officer in charge of a navigational watch serving on a seagoing ship
of 500 gross tonnage or more shall hold a certificate of competency. 
 STCW CONVENTION CHAPTER II

CHAPTER II - Master and deck department

• 2 Every candidate for certification shall:
• .1 be not less than 18 years of age;
• .2 have approved seagoing service of not less than 12 months as part of an approved
training programme which includes onboard training that meets the requirements of
section A-II/1 of the STCW Code and is documented in an approved training record
book, or otherwise have approved seagoing service of not less than 36 months;
 STCW CONVENTION CHAPTER II

CHAPTER II - Master and deck department

• .3 have performed, during the required seagoing service, bridge
watchkeeping duties under the supervision of the master or a qualified
officer for a period of not less than six months;
• .4 meet the applicable requirements of the regulations in chapter IV, as
appropriate, for performing designated radio duties in accordance with the
Radio Regulations;
 STCW CONVENTION CHAPTER II

CHAPTER II - Master and deck department

• .5 have completed approved education and training and meet the standard
of competence specified in section A-II/1 of the STCW Code; and
• .6 meet the standards of competence specified in section A-VI/1, paragraph
2, section A-VI/2, paragraphs 1 to 4, section A-VI/3, paragraphs 1 to 4 and
section A-VI/4, paragraphs 1 to 3 of the STCW Code.
 STCW CODE – SECTION II A-II/1

• Mandatory Minimum Requirements for Certification of Officers In Charge of

a Navigational Watch on Ships of 500 Gross Tonnage or More
 STCW CODE – SECTION II A-II/1
OICNW Standard of Competence
1. Every candidate for certification shall:
   1. be required to demonstrate the competence to undertake, at the
operational level, the tasks, duties and responsibilities listed in column 1
of table A-II/1;
   2. at least hold the appropriate certificate for performing VHF
radiocommunications in accordance with the requirements of the Radio
Regulations; and
   3. if designated to have primary responsibility for radiocommunications
during distress incidents, hold the appropriate certificate issued or recognized
under the provisions of the Radio Regulations.
 STCW CODE – SECTION II A-II/1
OICNW Standard of Competence
1. Every candidate for certification shall:
   3. The level of knowledge of the subjects listed in column 2 of table A-II/1
shall be sufficient for officers of the watch to carry out their watchkeeping
duties.*
   4. Training and experience to achieve the necessary level of theoretical
knowledge, understanding and proficiency shall be based on section A-VIII/2,
part 4-1 – Principles to be observed in keeping a navigational watch – and shall
also take into account the relevant requirements of this part and the guidance
given in part B of this Code.
 STCW CODE – SECTION II A-II/1

OICNW Standard of Competence

1. Every candidate for certification shall:
   5. Every candidate for certification shall be required to provide evidence of
having achieved the required standard of competence in accordance with the
methods for demonstrating competence and the criteria for evaluating
competence tabulated in columns 3 and 4 of table A-II/1.
 COURSE DESCRIPTION

THIS COURSE PROVIDES THE BACKGROUND OF KNOWLEDGE TO

SUPPORT THE FOLLOWING MAIN TOPICS ARRANGED BY CHAPTER:
• STEERING AND CONTROL SYSTEMS
• PRINCIPLES IN KEEPING A NAVIGATIONAL WATCH
• BRIDGE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
 COURSE DESCRIPTION

THIS COURSE PROVIDES THE BACKGROUND OF KNOWLEDGE TO

SUPPORT THE FOLLOWING MAIN TOPICS ARRANGED BY CHAPTER:
• NAVIGATIONAL TECHNIQUES USED FOR SAFE NAVIGATION IN
RESTRICTED VISIBILITY 
• AND USE OF REPORTING IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE GENERAL
PRINCIPLES FOR SHIP REPORTING SYSTEMS AND WITH VTS
PROCEDURES.
 TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOME

• EXPLAIN THE PRINCIPLE OF AN AUTOMATIC PILOT SYSTEM

• EXPLAIN THE FUNCTIONS OF THE MANUAL SETTINGS
• CHANGE OVER FROM AUTOMATIC TO MANUAL STEERING BASED ON
THE PROCEDURE
• EXPLAIN WHAT IS MEANT BY AN ADAPTIVE AUTOMATIC PILOT AND ITS
FUNCTION.
 ENGAGE

• HAVE YOU EVER HEARD OF AN AUTOPILOT?

• WHAT IS YOUR IDEA ON ITS WORKING PRINCIPLE?
 ASSIGNMENT FOR THE WEEK 

• RESEARCH ABOUT AUTONOMOUS SHIP. WRITE YOUR IMPRESSION IN

500 WORDS
 HISTORY OF SHIP AUTO PILOTS

• On October 12, 1860, American inventor and entrepreneur Elmer Ambrose

Sperry was born. Sperry is best known for his significant role in the
development of the gyrocompass, a type of non-magnetic compass which is
based on a fast-spinning disc and rotation of the Earth to automatically find
geographical direction.
 The Gyrocompass

• Elmer Ambrose Sperry produced a workable

and improved gyrocompass system that was
quickly adopted by the U.S. Navy and played a
significant role in World War I.
Further, the Navy started using Sperry‘s so called
‘Metal Mike‘. 
•  It was the first known gyroscope-guided autopilot steering system.
In the following decades, these and other Sperry devices were
adopted by steamships such as the RMS Queen Mary, airplanes, and
the warships of World War II. During both world wars, Sperry’s
company profited from military demand for gyroscopes.
 METAL MIKE OR IRON MIKE – THE
MECHANICAL HELMSMAN

• Sperry’s gyroscope-guided autopilot steering system, variously called a

“Metal” or “Iron” Mike - “It was a big manpower saver because you didn’t
need a helmsman,” There are captains who did not want seaman on the
wheel because the autopilot used less fuel. Many captains believed the
autopilot steered better than men.”
• Metal Mike tries to imitate the naval officer by use of feedback control and
automatic rudder adjustments.
• IN THE EARLY DAYS OF THE MARINE INDUSTRY, THE
VESSELS REQUIRED THE CONTINUOUS ATTENTION
OF SEAMEN TO SAIL SAFELY. AS SHIP RANGE
INCREASED, ALLOWING SHIPS OF LONGER ROUTES,
THE CONSTANT SCRUTINY LED TO SEVERE FATIGUE.
AN AUTOPILOT IS AIMED TO PERFORM SOME OF THE
TASKS OF THE PILOT.
 THE PRINCIPLE OF AN
AUTOMATIC PILOT SYSTEM
• AUTOMATIC steering has been devised to keep a ship
heading in one particular direction under most weather
conditions. When an automatic helmsman is correctly
adjusted for the prevailing weather conditions it can
usually steer a straighter and more economical course
than any human Quartermaster —this is mainly because
of the fact that the automatic helmsman cannot
daydream; its " mind " has been constructed to think of
nothing other than steering the ship.
• Quartermasters have had the advantage over auto-pilots in that they can
sometimes anticipate movement of a ship about her course but, the more
rhythmic steering of the auto-pilot is a greater advantage and also,
autopilots which can anticipate movement have now been installed in some
ships.
• Figures 1 a, b and c give
examples of steering
under similar
weather conditions as
displayed on the graph
of a course recorder.
Figure 1 a
shows steering by hand;
Fig. 1 b steering by auto-
pilot and Fig. 1 c
steering by auto-
pilot with anticipation
qualities.
• The complete action of steering will now be considered. When the ship's
head swings off course, say to starboard, the quartermaster applies port
helm to bring the ship's head back towards the course. As the ship's head
starts to swing back the amount of port helm is decreased and then the
helm, perhaps, put to midships when the ship's head is back on course or, if
need be, counter helm to starboard is applied to check the ship's head and
prevent it swinging on past the course to port. 
• At the end of his trick on the wheel the quartermaster states the course and
usually gives some guidance to his relief. For example, he might say " She's
swinging about two degrees on each side of the course and taking about
three-quarters of a turn to starboard and half a turn to port " . Perhaps,
instead of giving the number of turns of the wheel each side he may give the
actual rudder angles, for example, 10° to starboard and 7° to port. In more
technical terms it could be said that the ship was carrying 3° starboard helm
or rudder (10°-7°) and yawing 4° (that is, two degrees each side).
• Yaw is caused mainly by swell. The amount of yaw experienced depends on
the amplitude of the swell and, more important, the direction of the swell in
relation to the ship's head.
• The sensitivity of a quartermaster's steering is inversely proportional to the
amount of yaw, that is the greater the yaw the less sensitive the steering. If,
for example, a ship is yawing two degrees (one degree on each side of the
course) the quartermaster will only change the amount of helm he is
carrying when the ship moves more than one degree off course. 
• In general, in calm weather or with wind, sea and swell ahead it is usually
found that a vessel is best steered with small, sensitive helm applications
and with little, if any, weather helm being carried. In heavy weather with the
vessel yawing it is found that larger, less sensitive helm applications are
required. The amount of weather helm, as mentioned earlier, depends on
the characteristics of the ship and the directions of the wind, sea and swell. 
• Automatic helmsmen are provided with controls for adjusting the amount
of rudder, yaw (sensitivity) and the amount of weather helm carried. The
degree of success of the automatic steering depends on how well the officer
on watch can make these adjustments according to the prevailing weather
conditions and the characteristics of the ship. 
 Basic Principle of the Autopilot
•  The autopilot does the job of the helmsman by continuously obtaining
feedback from the gyrocompass and other sources and commanding the
steering gear appropriately such that the ship steers the course set by the
officer of the watch (OOW).
• This not only relieves the
helmsman from steering
duties but is also more
efficient. As soon as the ship
deviates from the set course,
corrective action is
immediately taken using
requisite amount of helm to
bring the ship back to the set
course.
• This is achieved by comparing
the course set by the OOW
with the Gyro compass
heading of the ship, any
difference between the two
will cause an error and
correcting helm is applied to
the rudder.
• Autopilot
functioning:-
• The course to be
steered is selected by
the course setting
control knob while the
present heading of the
ship is indicated on the
gyro or the magnetic
compass.
• The output from gyro/
magnetic compass is
coupled to the
comparator in the
control unit along with
the input signal from
manual course setting
control.
• Any difference between
the compass signal and
course setting signal
causes an output error
signal whose magnitude
is proportional to the
difference between the
two signals and hence
the comparator is also
referred to as
proportional control.
• In addition to the
proportional control,
the control unit also
consists of derivative
(differentiator) and
integral (integrator)
controls, which analyses
the signals from the
gyro or magnetic
compass and the course
setting control.
• A summing
amplifier is used to
obtain a resultant
signal from these
three controls
(Proportional,
integral and
derivative)
• The resultant
signal from
summing amplifier
is fed to the error
amplifier, which
also gets feedback
signals from the
rudder angle
indicator.
• Telemotor receiver
controls the
steering gear and
in turn rotates the
rudder stock and
the rudder.
• The output of the
error amplifier
(error signal) is fed
via telemotor
transmitter on the
bridge to the
telemotor receiver
in steering gear
compartment.
• There will be not output from the comparator when the difference between
compass and course setting signal is zero. Then the output from summing
amplifier will also be zero, and hence no movement of the rudder results.
Under this condition ship is on course
• The Autopilot controller generally uses three types of control to keep the
ship on track and steer the set course. These are:
• Proportional
Control:
• In proportional
control helm is
applied by an
amount
proportional to the
off-course error.
• As per above figure, when the ship has gone off-course to port from the set course, corrective
starboard helm is applied in proportion to the off-course.
• As the off-course increases, the corrective helm is also increased, Maximum starboard helm will
then be applied at a point “X” to starboard.
• When the ship starts returning to the track the off-course reduces and hence the corrective helm
is also reduced. At point “Y” since the off-course is nil the corrective helm is zero.
• But the ship continues to alter to starboard due to the turning momentum gained from “X” to “Y”
• Once on the starboard side of the trach “Z” the autopilot applies corrective helm to the port side
proportionate to the off-course.
• This goes on and as a result the ship sails on a zig-zag track, if only proportional control is applied.
This is also known as hunting along the set course.
• Integral Control:
• Due to certain design errors of a ship, when the helm is put on amidships the
ships tends to move towards port or starboard while making headway.
• Signals produced by continuously sensing this heading error over a period of
time are added up and used to determine an appropriate degree of
permanent helm required to keep the ship on a steady course.
• The zero position of the helm therefore shifts to a new position, equal to the
permanent helm. This is more a resetting action that brings the offset to
zero eventually.
• Derivative Control
• In Derivative control the amount of helm applies is proportional to the rate of
change of ship’s deviation from the course.
• A deviation of course to port at “X”
will result in corrective helm to
starboard. The corrective helm
proportional to the rate of change of
course will reach maximum at “Y”
where the rate is the highest.
• The rate of change of course
decreases due to applied corrective
helm. This results in reduction in the
corrective helm as well. At “Z” the rate
of change of course is nil hence the
rudder returns to midship.
• The ship now steers the same course
but is on a track parallel to the original
track.
• Derivative control is more like a
damping force and helps the ship to
settle down faster.
• P& D Control
• A controlled
combination of
proportional and
derivative control
produces a
satisfactory return to
course as shown in the
figure.
 TO RECAP ON THE PRINCIPLE OF AUTOPILOT
• Autopilot is the use of an automatic system to control the
rudder on the vessel. Use of autopilot can reduce the fuel
consumption by smoothing out the large angle rudder
movements used to hold a steady course. Efficient and
adaptive autopilot operations allow small deviations to
course-line, but will use fewer and smaller angle rudder
movements to maintain the course-line. This decreases the
rudder movement and consequently reduces fuel
consumption.
 TO RECAP ON THE PRINCIPLE OF AUTOPILOT
• Auto-Pilot system is considered as one of the most advanced and
technically sophisticated navigational equipment tools on ships.
Auto-Pilot is synchronized with the Gyro Compass to steer
manually input courses, with reference to the gyro heading. Auto
Pilot steers the manually input course by controlling the steering
gear to turn the rudder in the required manner. Furthermore,
modern auto-pilot systems are capable of being synchronized with
the Electronic Chart system (ECDIS) enabling to follow the courses
laid out in the Voyage plan. This feature cuts out the need of
manual course changes and alterations as the system will follow
the courses and alterations as per the voyage plan.
THE FUNCTIONS OF THE
MANUAL SETTINGS
• Manual steering system is
the device that a helm pump
driven by the rotation of the
steering wheel supplies oil to
the cylinder and pushes the
piston of cylinder to have the
rudder shaft move. It is a
simple system consisting of a
helm pump and a cylinder.
Manual Mode

• The steering controls of the system

can be categorized as Automatic and
Manual mode. It allows the ship to be
navigated either in Manual mode or
Automatic mode by switching the
controls.
• In Manual Mode, the vessel can be
hand steered by using the Follow-Up
Helm or a Non Follow Up emergency
tiller.
Manual Mode

• Hand steering is used when the ship is

maneuvering, and navigating in
restricted waters, channels and areas
with traffic density traffic density.
• NFU tiller when used will move the
rudder in a desired direction but not to
a specific angle. This is used in case of
emergencies.
• Different modes of
steering; Follow-up
and Non-Follow up
• The hierarchy
charts shows the
different modes of
steering.
 Follow up (FU)
Mode:
• As the name goes a follow
up or feedback is received to
the bridge steering control
from the steering
mechanism about the rudder
position and movement. This
is the principal mode of
steering on vessels.
 Follow up (FU) Mode:
• In this mode, the rudder follows the helm.
If the rudder is put 10° to starboard the
rudder will follow to 10° to stbd. and
remain there as long as wheel is kept to
10° to stbd.
• To bring the rudder to amidships the helm
will have to be brought to amidships.
• This mode is followed in the following
methods of steering:-
• The hand steering mode in which the
steering wheel sets the rudder angle.
• Auto pilot steering mode in which the
helm order is automatically generated
depending upon the difference between
the ordered course and the actual course.
 Non- Follow up
(NFU) Mode
• This mode of steering is not
done with a steering wheel
but with a NFU lever.
• The NFU lever does not have
any markings. As long as it is
kept pressed, the rudder will
continue turning and stop
the moment the lever is
released.
• This mode is used when ships
telemotor system fails. In
that case, the NFU lever
sends rudder setting directly
to the direction control
solenoid valves.
 Non- Follow up
(NFU) Mode
• To return the rudder to the
amidships, the NFU lever will
have to be pressed to the
opposite side of the initial
movement and kept pressed
till the rudder is amidships,
• This mode involves one-way
communication and there is
no scope of receiving
feedback from the steering
machinery to the bridge
control.
 TO RECAP ON THE FUNCTIONS OF
MANUALSYSTEM
• Follow-up mode is the most common way to steer a vessel
when in restricted waters. In this mode, the steering wheel
can be turned to port or starboard so as to request a rudder
order between 0° and 35°. The system makes automatic
adjustments to ensure that the rudder angle corresponds to
the requested angle at all times.
 TO RECAP ON THE FUNCTIONS OF
MANUALSYSTEM

• NFU mode is a back-up method of steering that can be used in the

event that the follow-up mode fails. In NFU mode, a tiller switch can
be moved to the left or right, which moves the rudder towards port
or starboard. In this mode, the helmsman must hold the tiller switch
until the rudder reaches the required angle and then release the
tiller switch to stop the rudder's movement. In the event that
external forces or other conditions move the rudder from the
desired angle, the helmsman must manually reposition the rudder
using the tiller switch.
CHANGE OVER FROM AUTOMATIC
TO MANUAL STEERING
BASED ON THE PROCEDURE
 Steering gear
control system
• The steering gear on a
typical cargo vessel is
controlled via a single
steering gear control
panel, located on the
bridge main console, that
gives the bridge crew the
capability to toggle
between different steering
modes (follow-up, NFU,
autopilot) and allows for
control of port and
starboard wing consoles, if
the vessel is fitted with
them.
• On the centre control
panel, in addition to the
starter switches for the
2 steering gear pumps,
there is a single selector
switch to toggle
between 5 different
steering gear system
modes: (0) OFF,
(1) NON-FOLLOW UP,
(2) FOLLOW UP,
(3) AUTOPILOT, and
(4) WINGS
• As indicated in Photo, the
right-hand control panel
comprises 3 selector switches
and an NFU tiller switch. The
top-left selector switch,
labelled “POSITION,” allows
the operator to toggle the
steering controls between the
port wing (P/W), centre, and
starboard wing (S/W) consoles.
The bottom-left selector
switch, labelled “MODE,”
allows the operator to control
the steering by means of the
ECDIS (NAVI), the autopilot, or
by hand.
• The bottom-right selector
switch, labelled “SYSTEM,”
allows the operator to toggle
between the follow-up (FU)
and NFU modes, and to select
which steering gear pump
starter panel is powering the
steering control system.
Whenever NFU mode is
selected on either of the
2 power supplies, the NFU
tiller switch in the top-right
corner can be used to move
the rudder to port (P) or
starboard (S). The labels on
this panel are illuminated and
their brightness can be
adjusted using a dimmer on
the right side of the panel.
• Wings control mode
• Operators on most modern
cargo vessels have the
capability to transfer
steering control, in
addition to the control of
other systems, to consoles
on the port or starboard
bridge wings. The operator
can then control the
steering in NFU mode by
the means of a single tiller
switch on each bridge wing
console.
CHANGE OVER FROM AUTOMATIC TO MANUAL
STEERING BASED ON THE PROCEDURE
The changing over procedure from Auto-pilot to hand steering involves the
following steps:
Turn the mode selector switch from Auto-pilot to hand steering
Steer manually as per the directions of the OOW or the master.

It is also a mandatory requirement of the SOLAS that Autopilot be changed

over to ‘Hand steering” mode and tested under the supervision of Officer of
Watch at least once during every navigational watch at sea and before
entering “Coastal/Congested waters”
 CHANGE OVER FROM MANUAL STEERING  TO
AUTOMATIC  BASED ON THE PROCEDURE
The changing over procedure from Hand steering to Auto-Pilot involves the
following steps:
• Steer the set course and steady the ship’s heading on this course.
• Set this course on the console
• Ensure that the wheel is on amidships
• Turn the mode selector switch from hand steering to auto-pilot
• Set the off-course alarm limit
• Monitor the performance auto-pilot for some time.
 ADAPTIVE AUTOMATIC
PILOT AND ITS FUNCTION.
• Autopilots have evolved from simple course holding systems to adaptive
computer systems that offer reduced fuel costs and increased transit times.
These new systems learn the characteristics of the vessel’s handling and
minimize rudder movement reducing drag on the vessel. Increased speed
and lower fuel consumption can result in tremendous savings offsetting the
cost of new systems within a year.
 Heading Control

• Traditional heading control is usually realized by a cascaded control system

with an internal feedback loop from the ship rotational speed. The internal
loop will keep the ship rotational speed within limits, and a big overshoot
from the reference heading direction will be avoided by a more moderate
and contiguously change in the rudder angle. In this way better course
following is obtained and the ship motion will be smoother. The principle is
shown in Figure 2.
 Waypoint Control

• In many situations the ship is controlled to follow a track between given

points on the map (waypoints). In this case the ship position must be known
at each instant to obtain the distance and direction to the next waypoint
(Williams 2006). By use of this information the reference heading is
obtained, and traditional heading control can be performed as described
above. The principle of waypoint control is shown in Figure 3, and an
example of the ship route is shown in Figure 4. 
 Economic Speed Control 
• A speed control loop for the ship may be useful both as a part of the course control,
but also for reasons of economy and comfortable ship movements. Traditional speed
control uses all the available power of the ship engine to obtain the correct speed.
This is of course not very economical regarding fuel consumption, wear and
pollution. It may therefore be beneficial to use an internal loop from the ship angular
velocity for the control of the engine power. In addition a feed forward loop from the
speed reference is used as a reference for the internal loop. The principle is shown in
Figure 5. By limiting the engine rotational speed the power consumption will be
reduced, and also the ship movements will be smoother. Figure 6 shows a
comparison in power consumption when raising the ship’s speed from 7 to 11 knots
for traditional and economic speed control.