REVIEW

MOLE RATIO
 The coefficients in a balanced equation given the moles of
each substance in that equation. For the combination
reaction of hydrogen gas and nitrogen gas to produce
ammonia, the coefficients give us valuable information
about the reaction:
This is the concept map utilizing the stoichiometric ratios

mol solution mol solution

V solution A V solution B
A B

Molar Molar ratio from Molar

concentration A balanced chemical concentration B
equation
 Salt can help lower the freezing/melting point
of water. Just think of how ice melting salt impacts
the roads. Similarly, adding salt to the ice that
surrounds the ice cream base provides a
temperature cold enough so that the ice cream
inside can thicken and freeze before the ice outside
the base entirely melts.This property is a colligative
property of solution.
Colligative Properties of Solutions
  
 
     
Colligative Properties
 The properties of a solution differ from that of
the pure solvent.
 Colligative Properties are the properties that
depend solely on the number of particles of
solute present but not on the kind and nature of
solute.
 The colligative properties depend on the amount
of the solute and not on their chemical identities.
  
 
      Colligative Properties
 Colligative Property: A property that depends only
upon the number of solute particles (concentration),
and NOT upon their identity.
 There are Four Important Colligative Properties of
Solutions.

 Vapor-pressure lowering
 Boiling-point elevation
 Freezing-point depression
 Osmotic pressure
 A. Vapor-Pressure Lowering
 Vapor pressure: is the pressure
exerted by a vapor that is in
dynamic equilibrium with its
liquid (molecules are moving
back and forth between liquid
and vapor phases)
 A solution that contains a solute  This is true because in a
that is not easily vaporized always solution, solute particles
has a lower vapor pressure than reduce the number of free
the pure solvent. solvent particles able to
escape the liquid.
 A. Vapor-Pressure Lowering

 The fast moving molecules of a liquid overcome

their attractive forces and escape into gaseous
state in the process called vaporization.
 The vapor collides with the walls of the container

and gives rise to vapor pressure.

 A. Vapor-Pressure Lowering
 In an open container, the
process continues and the
water level decreases, but
in a closed container, these
molecules that have escaped
can also return back in the
liquid state called
condensation.
 A. Vapor-Pressure Lowering
 When the rate of condensation becomes equal to the rate of
vaporization, equilibrium is reached.
 A substance that evaporate readily is called volatile.
 If the liquid is volatile, the escaping tendency of the molecules is
high and the vapor pressure is high.
 On the other hand, a nonvolatile substance has a low vapor
pressure because it has a low escaping tendency.
 If nonvolatile solute dissolved in water, the solute molecules
take up space at the surface and thus preventing the escape of
the solvent molecules.
 A. Vapor-Pressure Lowering
 In a solution, the interaction between the solute and the solvent is
greater than the solvent-solvent interaction thus, making it more
difficult for the molecules to escape.
 The vapor pressure of the solution becomes lower than that of the
pure solvent.
 The greater the concentration of the solute present, the greater the
vapor pressure reduction is. And since the number of solute particles
is greater in a solution containing and electrolyte solute, then the
vapor pressure of a solution containing an electrolyte solute will be
lower than the vapor pressure of a solution containing nonelectrolyte
solute.
 A. Vapor-Pressure Lowering
Container A, shows the
molecules of pure solvent and
the surface molecules escaping
into the gaseous state,
Container B, illustrates the
number of solvent molecules
escaping has considerably
decreased because the solute
molecules prevent the solvent
molecules from escaping.
A. Vapor-Pressure Lowering
 The decrease in a solution’s vapor
pressure is proportional to the number of
particles the solute makes in solution.
 B. Boiling-Point Elevation
 Boiling Point: The temperature at which
the vapor pressure of the liquid phase
equals atmospheric pressure.
 Because of the decrease in vapor pressure,
additional kinetic energy must be added to
raise the vapor pressure of the liquid phase of
the solution to atmospheric pressure to initiate
boiling.
 B. Boiling-Point Elevation
 For example, the boiling point of the water is 100
degree Celsius, Sea water however does not boil at this
temperature but at a higher temperature.

 In the same manner, the burn caused by boiling syrup

is more severe than the burn caused by boiling water,
because the boiling point of syrup is higher than that of
pure water.
 B. Boiling-Point Elevation
 This is because the interaction of the solute-solvent in a solution is greater
than the interaction of the solvent-solvent in a pure solvent or solute-
solute in a pure solute.

 Since the vapsor pressure is lower in the solution, it takes a longer time
to equalize the vapor pressure of the liquid and the atmospheric pressure.
Thus it takes a higher temperature to attain the boiling point of a solution.

 The boiling point of a solution, therefore is greater than the boiling point
of a pure solvent.
 B. Boiling-Point Elevation
(A) represents the molecules in
the liquid and the vapor state. (B)
represents the molecules of
solutions made up of solute and
solvent. The higher the number of
molecules in the vapor state, the
higher the vapor pressure and the
lower the boiling point. The
boiling point of a pure solvent is
lower than the boiling point of a
solution.
A B
 B. Boiling-Point Elevation

 The boiling point elevation (ΔTb) is the amount by which the

boiling point temperature of a solvent is raised.
 It is the difference between the boiling point of a solution
and the boiling point of a pure solvent.

Boiling point elevation:

(ΔTb) = boiling point of solution – boling point of pure solvent
B. Boiling-Point Elevation
 Boiling-Point Elevation: The difference in
temperature between the boiling point of
a solution and the boiling point of the
pure solvent.

 The boiling point of a solution is higher than

the boiling point of the pure solvent.
 B. Boiling-Point Elevation
 The magnitude of the boiling-
point elevation is proportional to
the number of solute particles
dissolved in the solvent.

 It takes additional kinetic energy for

the solvent particles to overcome
the attractive forces that keep them
in the liquid.
 B. Boiling-Point Elevation

The water molecules are attracted to

ions in solution, the ions “hold” the
water molecules down instead of
allowing them to be released into the
vapor phase. The water molecules
need more energy to “escape” from the
ions in solution!
 B. Boiling-Point Elevation
 In the case of water, its boiling point is increased by 0.512 degree
Celsius for every one mole of a nonelectrolyte solute dissolved in
one kilogram of water or one mole of solute/kilogram of solvent
which is 1 molal solution.
 This is called the molal boliling point constant (K
( b). Kb for water is
therefore 1 m/ oC.
 The boiling point of the solution will then be equal to the boiling
point of solvent plus the amount by which the boiling point was
elevated.
 B. Boiling-Point Elevation
Boiling point for 1 molal aqueous solution:
= 100 oC + 0.512 oC = 100.512 oC

If two moles of solute is dissolved in 1 kg water, then the

boiling point of the solution is:
Boiling point for 2 molal aqueous solution:
= 100 oC + 2m (0.512) = 100 oC + 1.02 oC =101.02 oC
1m
Molal boiling point Constants
 B. Boiling-Point Elevation
 The amount by which the boiling point is elevated is, therefore, equal to Kb x
molality.
ΔTb = Kb x m
Where:
ΔTb = Boiling Point Elevation
Kb = Molal Boiling Point Constant
m = Molality

 And the boiling point of the solution is equal to the boiling point of pure solvent
plus the amount by which boiling point was elevated.
Boiling point of solution = Boiling Point of solvent + ΔTb
Molal boiling point Constants
 B. Boiling-Point Elevation

 TheΔTb is directly proportional to the number of

moles of solute per kilogram of solvent which is
an expression of concentration in molality (m).

 Molalityis an expression of the number of moles

of solute present per kilogram of solvent.
 B. Boiling-Point Elevation

 TheΔTb is directly proportional to the number of

moles of solute per kilogram of solvent which is
an expression of concentration in molality (m).

 Molalityis an expression of the number of moles

of solute present per kilogram of solvent.
 Sample Problem

1. Calculate the boiling point of solution

containing 3.5 g sugar (molar mass =342g)
dissolved in 150 g of water.

The mass of solute (3.5 g) is given which is

dissolved in 150 g of solvent, water.
 Sample Problem
Step 1: Solve for the molarity of the solution.

Molality = 3.5g sugar x 1 mole x _1_ x 1000g

342g 150g 1 kg

3.5 x 1 mole x 1 x 1000 = 3500 mole = 0.068 mole/kg

342 x 150 x 1 kg 51300 kg
 Sample Problem
Step 2: Solve for the boiling point of elevation.

ΔTb = Kb x m
ΔTb = 0.512 oC x 0.068 m
1m
ΔTb = 0.035 oC
 Sample Problem
Step 3: Solve for the boiling point of the solution.

Boiling point of solution = Boiling point of

solvent + ΔTb

Bp of solution = 100 oC + 0.035 oC

Bp of solution = 100.035 oC
Why do spread SALT on
the roads in the winter?
 Why do spread SALT on the roads in the winter?
 When the ionic compound salt is added to the equation, it lowers the freezing point
of the water, which means the ice on the ground can’t freeze that layer of water
at 32 °F anymore. The water, however, can still melt the ice at that temperature,
which results in less ice on the roads.
 How salt lowers the freezing point of water. This concept is called “freezing point
depression.” Essentially, the salt makes it harder for the water molecules to bond together
in their rigid structure. In water, salt is a solute, and it will break into its elements. So, if
you’re using table salt, also known as sodium chloride (NaCl), to melt ice, the salt will
dissolve into separate sodium ions and chloride ions. Often, however, cities use calcium
chloride (CaCl2), another type of salt, on their icy streets. Calcium chloride is more effective
at melting ice because it can break down into three ions instead of two: one calcium ion and
two chloride ions. More ions mean more ions getting in the way of those rigid ice bonds.
 C. Freezing-Point Depression
 Freezing-Point Depression: The difference in temperature
between the freezing point of a solution and the freezing
point of the pure solvent (water).

 The presence of a solute in water disrupts the formation of the

orderly pattern of ice. Therefore more kinetic energy must be
withdrawn from a solution than from the pure solvent to cause
the solution to solidify.
 C. Freezing-Point Depression
 If one mole of nonelectrolyte solute is dissolved in one
kilogram water, the freezing point of water is reduced by
1.86 degree Celsius. If two moles of nonelectrolyte is
dissolved in one kg of water, then the freezing depression
constant for water (Kf) is 1.86 degree Celsius/1 molal
solution and Kf varies depending on the solvent.

 The identity of the solute does not have any effect on the
freezing point just like in the vapor pressure and boiling
point .
 C. Freezing-Point Depression
The freezing point depression:

ΔTf = Kf x m

Freezing point of solution = freezing point of solvent – ΔTf

Where:
ΔTf = Freezing Point Depression
Kf = Molal Freezing Point depression Constant
m = Molality
 Sample Problem

1. What is the freezing point depression when

155 g of Iodine (I2) crystals is added to 1,200 g
of benzene?

Kf (benzene) = 5.12 oC/m

FP (benzene) = 5.51 oC
 Sample Problem
Step 1: Solve for the molarity of benzene.

Molality = 155g I2 x 1 mole I2 x ___1______ x 1000g benzene

254 g 1,200g benzene 1 kg benzene

m = 155 x 1 mole I2 x 1 x 1000 = 0.509 mole/kg

254 x 1,200 x 1 kg
 Sample Problem
Step 2: Solve for the freezing point depression.

ΔTf = Kf x m
ΔTf= 5.12 oC x 0.509 m
1m
ΔTb = 2.61 oC
C. Freezing-Point Depression
 C. Freezing-Point Depression
 The magnitude of the freezing-
point depression is proportional
to the number of solute particles
dissolved in the solvent and does
not depend upon their identity.

 Which would be a better salt for

putting on icy roads, NaCl or CaCl2?
 D. Osmotic Pressure
 Osmosis is the movement of solvent through a semipermeable
membrane from region of low concentration to a region of high
concentration.
 A semipermeable membrane allows the passage only of certain
molecules.
 In the case of osmosis, a semipermeable membrane is placed in
between two solution of different concentrations, solvent will flow
from a region of the less concentrated solution to the more
concentrated solution.
 D. Osmotic Pressure
 The movement of the solvent continues until the
concentration on both side are the same.

 Osmotic pressure is a colligative property of solutions that

is observed using a semipermeable membrane, a barrier
with pores small enough to allow solvent molecules to pass
through but not solute molecules or ions.
 D. Osmotic Pressure
 The net flow of solvent through a
semipermeable membrane is called
osmosis (from the Greek osmós,
meaning “push”). The direction of
net solvent flow is always from the
side with the lower concentration of
solute to the side with the higher
concentration.
 D. Osmotic Pressure
 Osmosis can be demonstrated using a U-tube which contains
pure water in the left arm and a dilute aqueous solution of
glucose in the right arm.

 A net flow of water through the membrane occurs until the

levels in the arms eventually stop changing, which indicates that
equilibrium has been reached. The osmotic pressure ( Π ) of the
glucose solution is the difference in the pressure between the
two sides, in this case the heights of the two columns.
D. Osmotic Pressure
 D. Osmotic Pressure
 Although the semipermeable membrane allows water
molecules to flow through in either direction, the rate of
flow is not the same in both directions because the
concentration of water is not the same in the two arms.

 The net flow of water through the membrane can be

prevented by applying a pressure to the right arm that is
equal to the osmotic pressure of the glucose solution.
D. Osmotic Pressure
Osmotic Pressure.

(a) A dilute solution of glucose in water is

placed in the right arm of a U-tube, and the left
arm is filled to the same height with pure water;
a semipermeable membrane separates the two
arms. Because the flow of pure solvent through
the membrane from left to right (from pure
water to the solution) is greater than the flow of
solvent in the reverse direction, the level of
liquid in the right tube rises.
 D. Osmotic Pressure

(b) At equilibrium, the

pressure differential, equal
to the osmotic pressure of
the solution ( Πsoln),
equalizes the flow rate of
solvent in both directions.
 D. Osmotic Pressure

(c) Applying an external

pressure equal to the
osmotic pressure of the
original glucose solution to
the liquid in the right arm
reverses the flow of solvent
and restores the original
situation.
D. Osmotic Pressure
 D. Osmotic Pressure
 The osmotic pressure of a solution depends on the concentration of dissolved solute
particles. Osmotic pressure obeys a law that resembles the ideal gas equation:

Where;

M = is the number of moles of solute per unit volume of solution (i.e., the molarity of
the solution),
R = is the ideal gas constant (0.0821 L*atm/K*mol) and
T = is the absolute temperature (K-Kelvin)
 Sample Problem
If the normal osmotic pressure inside a yeast cell is 7.3 atm,
corresponding to a total concentration of dissolved particles of 0.30
M, what concentration of glycerol must the cells synthesize to exactly
balance the external osmotic pressure at 25°C?

Given: concentration, density, and temperature of NaCl solution;

internal osmotic pressure of cell

Asked for: osmotic pressure of NaCl solution and concentration of

glycerol needed
 Sample Problem
Strategy:

a)Calculate the molarity of the NaCl solution using the formula mass of
the solute and the density of the solution. Then calculate the total
concentration of dissolved particles.
b)Use Equation to calculate the osmotic pressure of the solution.

c)Subtract the normal osmotic pressure of the cells from the osmotic
pressure of the salt solution to obtain the additional pressure needed to
balance the two. Use Equation to calculate the molarity of glycerol
needed to create this osmotic pressure.
 Sample Problem
Solution:

STEP 1: The solution contains 4.0 g of NaCl per 100 g of

solution. Using the formula mass of NaCl (58.44 g/mol) and the
density of the solution (1.02 g/mL), we can calculate the molarity:
 Sample Problem
Because 1 mol of NaCl produces 2 mol of particles in solution, the
total concentration of dissolved particles in the solution is (2)(0.70
M) = 1.4 M.

STEP 2: Now we can use Equation to calculate the osmotic

pressure of the solution:
 Sample Problem
STEP 3: If the yeast cells are to exactly balance the external
osmotic pressure, they must produce enough glycerol to give an
additional internal pressure of (34 atm − 7.3 atm) = 27 atm.
Glycerol is a nonelectrolyte, so we can solve Equation for the
molarity corresponding to this osmotic pressure:
 Sample Problem
 In solving this problem, we could also have recognized that the only
way the osmotic pressures can be the same inside the cells and in
the solution is if the concentrations of dissolved particles are the
same.
 We are given that the normal concentration of dissolved particles in
the cells is 0.3 M, and we have calculated that the NaCl solution is
effectively 1.4 M in dissolved particles. The yeast cells must
therefore synthesize enough glycerol to increase the internal
concentration of dissolved particles from 0.3 M to 1.4 M—that is, an
additional 1.1 M concentration of glycerol.
 Summarry
 When a solution and a pure solvent are separated by a
semipermeable membrane, a barrier that allows solvent molecules but
not solute molecules to pass through, the flow of solvent in opposing
directions is unequal and produces an osmotic pressure, which is the
difference in pressure between the two sides of the membrane.
 Osmosis is the net flow of solvent through such a membrane due to
different solute concentrations. Dialysis uses a semipermeable
membrane with pores that allow only small solute molecules and
solvent molecules to pass through.
 D. Osmotic Pressure

Salt BP Π FP VP
 ASSIGNMENT

What are the other applications of

colligative properties of solutions? Discuss
briefly. State references used.