INTRODUCTION

TO
PROKARYOTES

3
 Prescott’s Microbiology
by Willey, Sherwood & Woolverton

8th edition (International Edition, 2011); ISBN 978-007-131367-4

McGraw-Hill

579 PRES
 ARCHAEAL MEMBRANE LIPIDS

Bacteria and
eukaryotes

Archaea

Figure 3.26; Prescott’s Microbiology, 8th edition (Willey, Sherwood & Woolverton)
EXAMPLES OF BI- AND MONOLAYER ARCHAEAL
MEMBRANES

Structurally similar to
bacteria and eukaryotes.

Unique to archaea

Figure 3.27; Prescott’s Microbiology, 8th edition (Willey, Sherwood & Woolverton)
Archaeal Cell Walls Differ from Bacterial Cell Walls
• Lack peptidoglycan.
• Most common cell wall is an S-layer.
• May have protein sheath external to S-layer.
• S-layer may be outside membrane and
separated by pseudomurein.
• Pseudomurein may be outermost layer (similar
to Gram-positive bacteria).

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EXAMPLES OF ARCHAEAL CELL ENVELOPES

e.g. Methanococcus; Methanospirillum

Pyrodictium; Thermoproteus

Methanosarcina e.g. Methanothermus; Methanopyrus

e.g. Methanobacterium; Halococcus; Natronococcus

Figure 3.28; Prescott’s Microbiology, 8th edition (Willey, Sherwood & Woolverton)
ARCHAEAL PSEUDOMUREIN SUBUNIT COMPOSITION

NOTES:
Pseudomurein is a peptidoglycan-
like molecule that contains:

(i) L-amino acids rather than D-

amino acids.

(ii) β(1→3) glycosidic bonds (not

β(1→4) glycosidic bonds).

Figure 3.29; Prescott’s Microbiology, 8th edition (Willey, Sherwood & Woolverton)
 ARCHAEAL MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

The studied archaeal chromosomes are similar to

eubacteria: a single, closed DNA circle per cell.

Archaeal genomes generally smaller than in

bacteria.

Mol% G+C: 21 - 68%.

Few plasmids found in archaea.

Pyrococcus exhibits bidirectional DNA replication

from a single origin (as in bacteria).
 ARCHAEAL MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

Methanococcus jannaschii: 56% of 1738 genes

unlike those in bacteria and eukaryotes (i.e.
suggests archaea are also genotypically distinct).

HOWEVER, archaeal mRNA similar to bacterial

mRNA: polycistronic mRNAs are produced and
there is NO evidence for mRNA splicing.

Archaeal promoters similar to those in bacteria.

 ARCHAEAL MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

RIBOSOMES ARE 70S (as in bacteria), but shape is

variable and can differ from both bacteria and
eukaryotes.

Protein synthesis SENSITIVE TO ANISOMYCIN,

resistant to chloramphenicol and kanamycin (i.e. like
eukaryotes).

EF-2 sensitive to DIPHTHERIA TOXIN (as in

eukaryotes) .
 ARCHAEAL MOLECULAR BIOLOGY (cont.)

Archaeal DNA replication proteins similar to

those in eukaryotes.

Archaeal RNA polymerase also similar to that in

eukaryotes: INSENSITIVE to rifampicin and
streptolydigin (which inhibit bacterial transcription).

Thus, most aspects of archaeal DNA, RNA

and protein synthesis resemble those in
eukaryotes.
 ARCHAEAL MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

Archaeal small-subunit rRNA is 16S (not 18S)

therefore similar in length to bacterial small-subunit-
rRNA molecules.

The big surprise was that 16S-rRNA gene

sequencing and phylogenetic analysis showed
archaea more closely related to eukaryotes than to
bacteria.
THE UNIVERSAL PHYLOGENETIC TREE

Figure 1.2; Prescott’s Microbiology, 8th edition (Willey, Sherwood & Woolverton)
 ARCHAEAL MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

The process of ATP GENERATION believed to

involve the formation of a proton gradient across
the cell membrane and an ATP SYNTHASE (i.e. the
same as bacteria).
COMMON PROPERTIES OF ARCHAEA:

1. Cell walls.
2. Membrane lipids.
3. Transcription and translation machinery.
4. Co-enzymes.
5. Mechanism of autotrophic CO2 fixation (in
autotrophic archaea).
 REASONS TO CONSIDER ARCHAEA
PROKARYOTIC

1. Similar cell sizes to bacteria.

2. No nuclear membrane and cellular organelles.

3. Possess a single, large, circular chromosome and

may have plasmids.
 SUMMARY
Archaea possess some features that distinguish
them from BOTH bacteria and eukaryotes.

Most notable differences are in the structure

and composition of archaeal membranes.

Archaea are UNIQUE in having a combination

of characteristics formerly believed to belong
exclusively to either bacteria or eukaryotes.
JUST WHEN YOU THOUGHT YOU HAD IT
ALL WORKED OUT…...

The view that all archaea live in extreme

environments was challenged in 1992 with the
discovery of archaea living in marine-plankton
communities off the coast of California (i.e.
mesophilic conditions of temperature and
salinity).
Archaea since detected in Mediterranean Sea,
Irish Sea and Adriatic Sea and in terrestrial soils.

Thus, archaea appear to be ubiquitous and are

NOT restricted in distribution to extreme
environments.
 BACTERIAL AND ARCHAEAL
CYTOPLASMIC STRUCTURES

Cytoskeleton
Intracytoplasmic membranes
Inclusions
Ribosomes
Nucleoid and plasmids

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 Protoplast and Cytoplasm

• Protoplast is plasma membrane and everything

within it.

• Cytoplasm: material bounded by the plasma

membrane.

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 The Cytoskeleton

• Homologues of all 3 eukaryotic cytoskeletal

elements have been identified in bacteria and
2 in archaea.

• Functions are similar as in eukaryotes (i.e.

roles in cell division, protein localisation, and
determination of cell shape).

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 The Nucleoid
• Irregularly shaped region in bacteria and archaea.

• Not membrane bound (there are a few exceptions).

• Location of chromosome and associated proteins.

• Usually 1 chromosome (closed circular, double-

stranded DNA molecule).

• Supercoiling and nucleoid proteins (HU) probably aid

in folding (nucleoid proteins differ from histones).

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 Sizes of Microbial Genomes

* = pathogen or parasite

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Figure 16.17; Prescott’s Microbiology, 8th edition (Willey, Sherwood & Woolverton)
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 Plasmids
• Extrachromosomal DNA (i.e. not part of the
chromosome).
– Found in bacteria, archaea, some fungi.
– Usually small, closed circular DNA molecules.

• Exist and replicate independently of chromosome.

– Episomes may integrate into chromosome.

• Plasmids contain only a few genes and these are

non-essential.
– Confer selective advantage to host (e.g. drug
resistance).

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 Plasmids (continued)
• May exist in many copies in cell.

• Inherited stably during cell division.

• Curing is the loss of a plasmid.

• Classification of plasmids based on mode of

existence, spread, and function.

• See Table 3.3

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THE MAJOR TYPES OF BACTERIAL PLASMIDS

Table 3.3; Prescott’s Microbiology, 8th edition (Willey, Sherwood & Woolverton)
 External Structures
• Extend beyond the cell envelop in bacteria and
archaea.

• Functions: protection, attachment to surfaces,

horizontal gene transfer, cell movement.

• Pili and fimbriae (attachment; horizontal gene

transfer).

• Flagella (cell movement).

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 Pili and Fimbriae
• Fimbriae (singular: fimbria) = pili (singular: pilus)
– Short, thin, hair-like appendages made of protein
(up to 1,000/cell).
– Mediate attachment to surfaces.
– Some (type IV fimbriae) required for motility or
DNA uptake.

• Sex pili (singular: pilus)

– Similar to fimbriae except longer, thicker, and less
numerous (1-10/cell).
– Genes for formation found on plasmids.
– Required for conjugation.

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BACTERIAL FIMBRIAE AND FLAGELLA

Figure 3.40; Prescott’s Microbiology, 8th edition (Willey, Sherwood & Woolverton)