LECTURE PRESENTATIONS

For CAMPBELL BIOLOGY, NINTH EDITION

Jane B. Reece, Lisa A. Urry, Michael L. Cain, Steven A. Wasserman, Peter V. Minorsky, Robert B. Jackson

The Cell Cycle

Lectures by
Erin Barley
Kathleen Fitzpatrick

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Cell Division
- involves the distribution of identical genetic
material or DNA to two daughter cells.
- Cell Division functions in reproduction, growth,
and repair.
Key Roles of Cell Division

• The ability of organisms to produce more of

their own kind best distinguishes living things
from nonliving matter
• The continuity of life is based on the
reproduction of cells, or cell division
CELL CYCLE

- The sequence of events that occurs between

two consecutive cell divisions.

- The Cell Cycle represents all phases in the life

of a cell.
Cell Cycle control system
The Cell Cycle control
system is driven by a
built-in clock that can
be adjusted by external
stimuli (i.e., chemical
messages).
Checkpoint—a critical control
point in the Cell Cycle where
‘stop’ and ‘go-ahead’ signals
can regulate the cell cycle.

• Animal cells have built-in

‘stop’ signals that stop the cell
cycles and checkpoints until
overridden by ‘go-ahead’
signals.
Three major checkpoints of the
Cell Cycle
 Three major checkpoints of the
Cell Cycle
The G1 Checkpoint—the Restriction Point
• The G1 checkpoint ensures that the cell is large enough to
divide
• ensures that cell has enough nutrients available to support the
resulting daughter cells.
• If a cell receives a ‘go-ahead’ signal at the G1 checkpoint, it will
usually continue with the Cell Cycle.
• If the cell does not receive the ‘go-ahead’ signal, it will exit the
Cell Cycle and switch to a non-dividing state called G0.
• Most cells in the human body are in the G0 phase.
 Three major checkpoints of the
Cell Cycle
The G2 Checkpoint—ensures that DNA
replication in S phase has been successfully
completed.

The Metaphase Checkpoint—ensures that all

of the chromosomes are attached to the mitotic
spindle by a kinetochore.
KINASE
Kinase—a protein which activates or deactivates
another protein by phosphorylating them
Kinases give the ‘go-ahead’ signals at the G1
and G2 checkpoints

The kinases that drive these checkpoints must

themselves be activated.
CYCLINS

• The activating molecule is a cyclin, a protein

that derives its name from its cyclically
fluctuating concentration in the cell.
• Because of this requirement, these kinases
are called cyclin-dependent kinases or CDKs.
• Cyclins accumulate during the G1, S, and G2
phases of the Cell Cycle.
• By the G2 checkpoint, enough cyclin is
available to form MPF complexes (aggregations
of CDK and cyclin) which initiate mitosis.
MPF (Maturation-promoting factor or
Mitosis-promoting Factor)
• MPF functions by phosphorylating key
proteins in the mitotic sequence.

• Later in mitosis, MPF switches itself off by

initiating a process which leads to the
destruction of cyclin.
STAGES OF CELL CYCLE

A. Interphase or Resting stage (DNA

replication)
B. Mitosis (nuclear division)
C. Cytokinesis (cell division or division of the
cytoplasm)
 A. INTERPHASE (non-dividing stage)
• Cells absorbs nutrients,
build up the protoplasm
and increase in size in
preparation for cell division
• The centrioles(found only
in animal cells) replicate
• DNA exists as long thin
threads called chromatin
 A. INTERPHASE (non-dividing stage)
• Before mitosis can occur,
chromatin threads (DNA)
must replicate to form two
identical chromatin threads
(sister chromatids).
• The chromatids are joined
at a point near the middle,
called the centromere.
• Besides the replication of
DNA, key proteins
associated with
chromosomes are also
synthesized
B. MITOSIS
- Process in which a cell nucleus divides to produce
two daughter nuclei with the same set of
chromosomes as the parent nucleus (genetically
identical)

- It is important in the growth, repair and asexual

reproduction of an organism
 FOUR STAGES OF MITOSIS
EARLY PROPHASE
-Chromatin threads condense to become chromosomes
-Asters, which are short microtubules, form around
the centrioles
-Two pairs of centrioles migrate to opposite poles of the
cell
-The nucleolus
disappers
 FOUR STAGES OF MITOSIS
LATE PROPHASE
-The nuclear envelope disintegrates
-Spindle fibres form and extend between both poles
of the cell to form the spindle
 METAPHASE
- The chromosomes line
up at the equator of the
spindle
- Each chromosomes
attaches to a spindle
fiber at its centromere
 ANAPHASE
• Each chromosomes splits.
• The chromatids are pulled
to opposite poles of the
cell by spindle fibres.
• Once separated, the
chromatids are called
daughter chromosomes
 TELOPHASE
• The chromosomes
uncoil and lengthen into
thin chromatin threads
• A nucleolus forms
• The spindle fibres
disintegrates
• A nuclear envelope
forms around the
chromosomes at each
pole of the cell
 C. CYTOKINESIS
• A cleavage (furrow)
appears in the
cytoplasm
• The furrow
deepens to divide
the cytoplasm
• Two identical
daughter cells are
produced when
cytoplasmic
division is complete
MEIOSIS
• Also known as reduction division – a nuclear
division that produces daughter nuclei with half
a number of chromosomes as the parent
nucleus.
• reduces the amount of genetic information
• It involves two cycles of division – meiosis I and
meiosis II
• Each division consists of four stages
• Prophase, metaphase, anaphase,telophase
STAGES IN MEIOSIS
PROPHASE I
-The chromatin threads condense into chromosomes
-The homologous chromosomes pair along their whole length.
This pairing is called synapsis.
-Asters appear around the centrioles
-Chromosomes shorten further, revealing the two chromatids of
each chromosomes which are attached at the centromere
STAGES IN MEIOSIS I
PROPHASE I
-The chromatids of homologous chromosomes coil around each
other at one or more points called chiasmata
-Crossing over occurs at each chiasma, to produce new
combinations of genes in the chromatids
-The centrioles arrive at opposite poles of the cell
-Nuclear envelope disappear and spindle fibres form
 METAPHASE I
• The chromosome pairs arrange themselves along the
equator of the cell
• The chromosomes of each pair randomly face opposite
poles of the cell.
• This results in the independent assortment of genes when
cell divides.
 ANAPHASE I
• The homologous chromosomes separate and are
pulled by spindle fibres to opposite poles of the cell
• Each chromosome still consists of two chromatids
 TELOPHASE I
• Spindle fibres disintegrates.
• In most cases, the chromosomes uncoil and the nuclear
envelop forms at each pole.
(most plant cells bypass telophase I and proceed to interphase II)
CYTOKINESIS AND INTERPHASE II

• A furrow forms, which cleaves the cytoplasm

to produce two haploid daughter cells.
• The cell enters interphase II and centrioles
replicate.
 MEIOSIS II
PROPHASE II
-The chromosomes condense and the nuclear envelope
disintegrates
-The centrioles migrate to opposite poles of the cell
-Spindle fibres form
 METAPHASE II
- The chromosomes line up along the equator of the
spindle
 ANAPHASE II
- Each centromere splits into two.
- The sister chromatids are pulled towards opposite
poles
 TELOPHASE II
- The daughter chromosomes uncoil and the nuclear
envelope forms around them at each pole
- The spindle fibres break down

CYTOKINESIS
Cleavage of the cytoplasm produces four haploid
daughter cells
 IMPORTANCE OF MITOSIS
• Cells divide to maintain an optimal cell size and
surface area to volume ratio. This increase the
efficiency of transporting materials into and out of
cell.
• A cell nucleus divides to produce two identical
daughter nuclei
• It is important in the growth, repair and reproduction
of organism
 IMPORTANCE OF MEIOSIS
• Needed for the production of haploid gametes, so the
fusion of the male gamete and female gamete
restores the diploid number of chromosomes in the
zygote.
• Meiosis generates genetic variation in the gametes
• Variation increases the ability of the species as a
whole to survive changes in the environment
Differences between Mitosis and Meiosis
MITOSIS MEIOSIS
Occurs in somatic cells during Occurs in germ cells during gamete
growth and repair production

Involves one nuclear division, which Involves two nuclear division, which
produce 2 daughter cells produce 4 daughter cells

Daughter cells have the same Daughter cells have half the number
number of chromosomes as the of chromosomes as the parent cell
parent cell

Crossing over does not occur as Crossing over may occur when
homologous chromosomes do not homologous chromosomes pair up
pair up during prophase I

Daughter cells are genetically Daughter cells are genetically

identical to the parent cell different (due to independent
assortment and crossing over)